Diabetes and Driving in Europe
A Report
of the
Second European Working Group on Diabetes and Driving,
an advisory board to the Driving Licence Committee of the European Union
______________
1
DIABETES and DRIVING
Members of the Working Group “Diabetes and driving”
¾ Prof Christian Berne, chairman Sweden
¾ Dr Delyth Sheppard, secretary UK
¾ Dr Bridget Boyd, acting secretary UK
¾ Dr Martina Albrecht Germany
¾ Prof Sten Madsbad Denmark
¾ Dr Paul Van Crombrugge Belgium
¾ Dr Ricardo Garcia Mayor Spain
¾ Dr Juan Carlos Gonzales Luque Spain
¾ Dr Bernard Gappmaier Austria
Member on behalf of the European Commission (DG TREN):
¾ Joël Valmain
External Consultant
¾ Prof Brian Frier UK
Meetings of the Working Group (WG) “Diabetes and driving”:
¾ 24th June 2004
¾ 16th November 2004
¾ 15-16th February 2005
¾ 21st June 2005
Conversion factor for blood glucose: 1 mmol/ = 18.18 mg/dl
This document reflects the consensus of experts who gathered to discuss this topic.
Consensus is generally defined as the majority opinion or general agreement of the group. In
that vein, it should be noted that consensus does not mean that all of the participants
unanimously agreed on all of the findings and recommendations.
Parts of this text are coming from publications of the American Diabetes Association, the
Canadian Diabetes Association, the Monash University (Influence of Chronic Illness on Crash
Involvement of Motor Vehicle Drivers (2004)).
2
Introduction
The driving licences department of the Directorate General for Energy and Transport of the
European Commission expressed its intention to advance the revision of Annex III to
Directive 91/439/CEE, concerning minimum standards of physical and mental fitness for
driving power-driven vehicles. To this end, a number of workgroups were formed: one of
these addressed diabetes.
Definition of diabetes
Diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic diseases characterized by hyperglycaemia resulting
from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both. The chronic hyperglycaemia of
diabetes is associated with long-term damage, dysfunction, and failure of various organs,
especially the eyes, kidneys, nerves, heart, and blood vessels.
Type 1 diabetes:
Type 1 diabetes is a condition in which pancreatic beta cells are destroyed, resulting in a
failure of the pancreas to produce insulin. This form of diabetes usually develops during
childhood and adolescence, but adult onset may occur (American Diabetes Association,
2003). Type 1 diabetes is always treated by insulin therapy, delivered by pump or injection.
Type 2 diabetes:
Type 2 diabetes arises when the pancreas is unable to produce sufficient insulin to overcome
insulin resistance. Insulin resistance means that the body cells are unable to use insulin
effectively. Type 2 diabetes is a progressive disease because of destruction of the insulin
producing cells in the pancreas. This type of diabetes is associated with older age although is
increasingly being diagnosed in children and adolescents. Risk factors include genetic
predisposition, and obesity and other lifestyle factors e.g physical inactivity. Type 2 diabetes
represents around 90 percent of all cases of diabetes. Type 2 diabetes may be controlled by
diet and exercise and/or oral medications and/or insulin.
More information on the definition and classification is available on
http://care.diabetesjournals.org/cgi/reprint/29/suppl_1/s43
More information on all aspects of diabetes can be found on eg
http://diabetes.niddk.nih.gov/dm/pubs/overview/
or
http://www.diabetes.ca/Section_About/FactsIndex.asp
3
Prevalence of diabetes
The WHO estimates that the prevalence of diabetes is just over 175 million worldwide
In 2003, the prevalence of the disease in Western European countries (EURO A group which
includes Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, UK
and others) was estimated at 17.8 million or around 4.3 percent of this population.
Detailed values for the individual countries in Europe can be seen in this table.
The prevalence of Type 2 diabetes reaches epidemic values in the older age (> 60) group (see
figure and table).
4
source: http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/ccdpc-cpcmc/ndss-snsd/english/diabetes_data/index_e.html
The prevalence of diabetes is increasing, due to several factors: the increasing of age of the
population, the increase in obesity, and physical inactivity. Furthermore, because of a more
aggressive treatment of cardiovascular risk factors, diabetic patients live longer.
More information about the prevalence of diabetes can be found on the “diabetes e-atlas”
from the IDF (International Diabetes Federation): http://www.eatlas.idf.org/
Complications of diabetes
Acute hypoglycaemia
:
This refers to low blood glucose concentrations (usual below 50-60mg/dl(3.0mmol/l). A
hypoglycaemic event may result when there is “an imbalance between carbohydrate intake,
administered exogenous or augmented endogenous (drug therapy) insulin”. The
manifestations of the reaction vary widely between individuals and within individuals across
time and can impact on visual functions, cognitive functions and general orientation. This
may influence the ability of the person to drive safely.
More info: see infra in this report
Acute hyperglycaemia:
This refers to high blood glucose concentration, which most commonly is associated with
uncontrolled diabetes. Severe hyperglycaemia may lead to biochemical imbalances that can
cause acute life-threatening events such as ketoacidosis or hyperosmolar (nonketotic) coma.
Hyperglycaemia may also result in visual impairment, disorientation and decreased mental
processing capacity, which may in turn affect driving performance.
More info on: http://care.diabetesjournals.org/cgi/reprint/27/suppl_1/s94
Chronic hyperglycaemia can lead to the late diabetes complications such as retinopathy
(eyes), nephropathy (kidneys), neuropathy (nerves) and cardiovascular disease. Recent
studies (DCCT, UKPDS) proved the crucial role of good glycaemic control in the prevention
5
of these diabetic complications. Other factors, such as smoking, hypertension, and lipids can
play an enhancing role in the development of these complications.
Diabetic retinopathy (DR)
Refers to eye disease resulting from damage to small blood vessels in the retina. DR is the
leading cause of blindness and visual impairment in adults. DR is strongly associated with
time since onset of diabetes and level of blood glucose control. It is common amongst those
with Type 1 diabetes and it is estimated that after about 20 years post-onset, almost all those
with Type 1 diabetes will have DR. It is also estimated that about 21 percent of those with
Type 2 diabetes have retinopathy on diagnosis of their condition and most will develop DR
eventually. Studies have found that after 15 years of diabetes, approximately 2 percent of
people become blind, while about 10 percent develop severe visual handicap. Other visual
conditions such as glaucoma and cataract may be more common in people with diabetes than
in those without the disease.
More info on: http://care.diabetesjournals.org/cgi/reprint/27/suppl_1/s84
Cardiovascular disease, stroke and high blood pressure
Diabetes is frequently associated with high blood pressure and high blood cholesterol and
triglycerides (metabolic syndrome), which increase the risk of heart disease and stroke.
Recent studies in Australia have shown that people with diabetes are two to five times more
likely to have heart disease or stroke than those without diabetes. In addition, 73 percent of
adults with diabetes have high blood pressure (BP ≥ 130/80) or are treated for hypertension.
About 70-80% of people with type 2 diabetes will die from cardiovascular disease (50-60%
from coronary artery disease).
Nephropathy
Nephropathy or kidney disease is associated with both types of diabetes.
Nephropathy affects 10-21 percent of people with diabetes. Good blood glucose control and
control of blood pressure is important in prevention of nephropathy. The condition is
progressive and takes several years to develop. Eventually the entire filtration system may
break down, leading to end-stage renal disease (ESRD) or kidney failure, requiring kidney
transplant or dialysis for survival.
More info on: http://care.diabetesjournals.org/cgi/reprint/27/suppl_1/s79
Neuropathy or peripheral nerve disease
This is the most common complication of diabetes, affecting up to 50 percent of people with
both types of diabetes. The condition may result in sensory loss and damage to the limbs.
‘Diabetic Foot’ is an example of a peripheral neuropathy, characterised by chronic or
recurring diabetic foot ulcers. Peripheral vascular disease and peripheral neuropathy can lead
to ulceration, weakness and amputation, which may have negative effects for some drivers.
More info on:
http://care.diabetesjournals.org/cgi/reprint/28/4/956?ijkey=433c8b53a5a14b78301554321bb1
b48576d610e0
6
Newer, lower goals for BG: DCCT, UKPDS
The DCCT (Diabetes Control and Complication Study) is a clinical study conducted in people
with type 1 diabetes from 1983 to 1993 by the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive
and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) in the USA and Canada. The study showed that keeping blood
glucose levels as close to normal as possible slows the onset and progression of eye, kidney,
nerve diseases and cardiovascular disease caused by diabetes. It was published in 1993.
More info on: http://diabetes.niddk.nih.gov/dm/pubs/control/
Analogous results were found in type 2 diabetes with the UKPDS (UK Prospective Diabetes
Study) conducted in the United Kingdom. It was published in 1998.
More info on: http://www.dtu.ox.ac.uk/index.html?maindoc=/ukpds/
Both studies had an enormous impact on the way that people with diabetes are treated in the
last 10 years. People with diabetes try to bring their blood glucose down as close as possible
to within the normal range. Oral hypoglycaemic drugs and insulin are used in a more
intensive way. This has consequences on the risk for hypoglycaemia. This is discussed later
on in this report.
Newer tools to monitor disease and treatment: self blood glucose
monitoring.
Self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG) is an important component
of modern therapy for
diabetes mellitus. SMBG has been recommended
for people with diabetes. Their health care
professionals are advised to encourage SMBG in their patients
in order to achieve a specific
level of glycaemic control and
to prevent hypoglycaemia.
The goal of SMBG is to collect detailed
information about blood glucose levels at many time
points to
enable maintenance of a more constant glucose level by more
precise regimens. It
can be used to aid in the adjustment of
treatment in response to blood glucose values and
to
help individuals adjust their dietary intake, physical activity,
and insulin doses to improve
glycaemic control on a day-to-day
basis.
SMBG can aid in diabetes control by:
• facilitating the development of an individualized blood glucose
profile, which can then
guide health care professionals in treatment
planning for the individual
• giving people
with diabetes and their families the ability to
make appropriate
day-to-
day treatment choices in diet and physical
activity as
well as in insulin or other
hypoglycaemic agents;
• improving patients’
recognition of hypoglycaemia or severe
hyperglycaemia; and
• enhancing
patient education and patient empowerment regarding
the effects
of lifestyle
and pharmaceutical intervention on
glycaemic control.
SBGM is the prerequisite to obtain a safe and adequate level of glucose control.
It plays an important role in detecting hypoglycaemia and is crucial for safe driving (see
infra).
7
More people with T2DM are treated with insulin
The UKPDS resulted in a more assertive treatment of Type 2 diabetes: during the normal
progression of the disease, a progressive insulin deficiency develops. By this, more and more
people will require an insulin treatment, in order to obtain satisfactory glycaemic control, as
illustrated by this table. After some years, the majority of most of the patients with Type 2
diabetes need insulin therapy to maintain optimal control.
1
Type 2 diabetes – treatment vs duration
Age of onset >40 yrs
n= 41.507 ( 2002)
0
20
40
60
80
100
0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 >25-
Insulin + OHA
Diet
%
Insulin
Duration (yrs)
OHA
50 %
8
DIABETES AND DRIVING
Some general remarks
• Public safety (crash prevention) is the primary goal, but individual mobility rights should
not be violated if there is no special risk for public safety
• A person with diabetes is an individual. There is a lot of heterogeneity in the group of
diabetics (type of treatment, level of stabilisation, presence of complications, duration of
the disease, active personal involvement with the disease, level of diabetes education,
frequency of hypoglycaemia, etc.…)
Ideally, these should be taken into account when assessing fitness to drive.
• In the evaluation of the driving ability, there should be equal attention paid to the
preventive measures that the patient can take (eg level of diabetes education and diabetes
control, frequency of self blood glucose monitoring, etc) as to the medical condition per se.
• More emphasis should be given to the implementation of the rules.
The more the rules are restrictive and difficult in their implementation (eg administratively
complex), the less they will be followed. This problem of compliance to the regulations
(with frequent under reporting in many Member States) is not only mentioned in this WG,
but is a problem noted for a number of medical conditions.
Is “diabetes and driving” a relevant problem in our present society?
Diabetes and driving is a very relevant problem in our society:
¾ The disease is very frequent (see introduction) and is in the older age group epidemic
(25% and more incidence).
¾ The majority of people with diabetes will be treated with drugs (oral hypoglycaemic
drugs or insulin) that eventually can provoke hypoglycaemia, resulting in temporary
adverse effects on functional abilities (slower reaction time, impaired coordination,
etc) and in some cases to loss of consciousness.
¾ Some diabetes complications can interfere with driving ability:
o Visual impairment by diabetic retinopathy
o Physical impairment by neuropathy with loss of sensation or muscle weakness
or by amputation
9
History
Annex III of Directive 91/439/EEC on driving licences.
The Council Directive 91/439/EEC on driving licences, called the ‘Second Directive’ on
Driving licences, entered into force on 1 July 1996. In very general terms, the main issues of
the Second Directive are as follows: the harmonisation of licence categories (though the
introduction of subcategories is not mandatory), the introduction of minimum ages as a
prerequisite for the entitlement to drive vehicles, as well as a mandatory theory and practical
examination. Furthermore, the Directive lays down the principle of mutual recognition of
licences issued by a Member State and defines normal residence as a prerequisite for
obtaining a licence. The Second Directive also contains detailed provisions on minimum
health criteria and introduced a harmonised Community model driving licence. Additional
provisions refer to the effect of cancellation, withdrawal and restriction of licences.
The medical examination
Different intervals as to medical examinations derive from provisions in Annex III of the
Second Directive: its point 3 lays down that applicants for group 1 licences have to undergo a
medical examination only in cases where substantial doubts with respect to the applicants’
fitness to drive arises in the course of the application procedure. After a driving licence has
been issued, no mandatory medical examination at all is prescribed for holders of group 1
licences.
For holders of group 2 licences, Annex III point 4 stipulates that they have to undergo a
medical examination before the first issue of such a licence. Thereafter, the Directive
foresees the imposition of periodic examinations without specifying regular intervals.
DIABETES MELLITUS
Group 1:
10. Driving licences may be issued to, or renewed for, applicants or drivers
suffering from diabetes mellitus, subject to authorized medical opinion
and regular medical check-ups appropriate to each case.
Group 2:
10.1. Only in very exceptional cases may driving licences be issued to, or
renewed for, applicants or drivers in this group suffering from diabetes
mellitus and requiring insulin treatment, and then only where duly justified
by authorized medical opinion and subject to regular medical checkups.
Problems with Annex III of Directive 91/439/EEC!
The second Directive has already reached a certain degree of harmonisation.
Nonetheless, some aspects have not been harmonised yet and the Directive leaves room for
manoeuvre for Member states. Thus, considerable practical and legal differences persist in
the above-mentioned fields in the licensing systems of the various Member states.
This was summarised in 2003 for the EU by Daniel Vandenberghe in a discussion note “The
medical examination for driving licence applicants/holders in the European Union”
10
Therefore, the WG looked in more detail into the regulations concerning Driving and
Diabetes in some selected Member States (see table). They found clear discrepancies in the
way diabetes was evaluated and in the regulations in these member states. There is a need to
move further towards harmonisation.
11
Diabetes and Driving – regulations in selected states
Country
source of information
Driver
Group
Type 2
diet alone
Type 2
diet + tablets
Type 1/2
insulin-treated
single
hypoglycaemic
episodes
instable, risk of
hypoglycaemia
end organ
effects
1
subject to authorised medical opinion
and regular appropriate check-ups
EU
Annex III
Council Directive
91/439/EEC
2
subject to authorised medical opinion and
regular appropriate check-ups
very exceptional cases
authorised med. opin.
regular med. check-ups
not explicitly mentioned
1
diet, metformin, glitazones:
certification of GP
regular follow-up
compliance
limitation 5 / 3 years
other OHD, insulin:
certification of specialist
regular follow-up
compliance, education
limitation 3 / 5 years
Belgium
Presentation of Paul van
Crombrugge
2
diet, metformin, glitazones:
eval. by occupational physician
after advice by specialist
regular medical follow-up
compliance
limitation 3 years
other OHD, insulin:
exceptional cases
eval. by occupational physician
after advice by specialist
regular medical follow-up
compliance, education, self-
monitoring, good traffic perf.
limitation 3 years
not explicitly
mentioned
refusal/revocation
“no significant
complications”
1
certification of GP
limitation 5 years
appropriate review
certification of GP
limitation 5 years
no hypo in last 2
years
certif. of medic. officer
limitation 2 years
no hypo in last 2 years
2 years after hypo:
certification of
medical officer
Denmark
Trafikministeriets
bekendtgørelse om
kørekort 2000
Trafikministeriets
cirkulære 2000
2
certification of GP
limitation 5 years
appropriate review
certification of
medical officer
limitation 2 years
very except. cases
certif. of public health
department
2 years after hypo:
certification of
medical officer
refusal/revocation
not explicitly
mentioned
1
no restriction if satisfactory control and awareness of hypo
Germany
“Begutachtungs-Leitlinien
zur Kraftfahrereignung”
BASt 2000
2
exceptional cases
no hypo for 3 month
3 yearly review GP
very except. cases
certific. of specialist
2 yearly review
driving ban until
satisfactory control
refusal/revocation
dependent
on degree,
vision tests
recommended
12
Diabetes and Driving – regulations in selected states
Country
source of information
Driver
Group
Type 2
diet alone
Type 2
diet + tablets
Type 1/2
insulin-treated
single
hypoglycaemic
episodes
instable, risk of
hypoglycaemia
end organ
effects
1
not notifiable if no
complications
licence till 70 if no
complications
1,2 or 3 year licence
awareness of hypo
visual standards
driving ban until
satisfactory control
certification of GP
driving ban until
satisfactory control
certification of GP
Great Britain
For medical practitioners
“At a glance”
DVLA 9-2004
2
not notifiable if no
complications
licencing if no
complications
possibly short period
licence
exceptional cases
1 yearly review
refusal/revocation
recommended
refusal/revocation
recommended
dependent on
degree
1
Conditional licence
with medical (GP)
certificate* mandatory
Specialized report* is
mandatory. Renewal
every 4 years.
2
No restriction.
It is not allowed DM
with severe metabolic
problems that
required hospital
attendance.
Specialized report* is
mandatory. Renewal
every 3 years.
Specialized report* is
mandatory. Renewal
every year.
Not explicitly
mentioned
no repeated
hypoglycaemic
episodes
In accord to
“Spanish medical
rules for drivers”,
(see legal
reference): visual,
neurological and
renal sections.
Spain
Annex IV. National
Regulation for drivers
(Royal Decree-law
772/97 modified by Royal
Decree-law 1598/04)
(*Note: all medical reports need to have references about: treatment control, hypoglycaemia control and adequate diabetological education)
1
no restriction if satisf.
control, free of complic.
limitation 5 years
The Netherlands
Regeling eisen 2000
2
no restriction if satisfactory control and free of
complications
limitation 5 years
exceptional cases
certif. of specialist
satisfactory control
free of complications
self-monit., compliance
limitation 3 years
not explicitly
mentioned
refusal/revocation
depend. on degree
eye examination
recomm. after 20
years of diabetes
1
no restriction
not notifiable
GP review recomm.
not notifiable
5 yearly review
conditional licence
certification of GP
2 yearly review
awareness of hypo
driving ban 6 weeks
control of specialist
crash: notification
depend. on degree
conditional licence
certification of GP
Australia
“Assessing fitness to
drive”
Australian Transport
Council 2003
2
no restriction
not notifiable
GP review recomm.
conditional licence
certific. of specialist
1 yearly review
high compliance
agents with min. risk
awareness of hypo
conditional licence
certific. of specialist
1 yearly review
high compliance
agents with min. risk
awareness of hypo
driving ban, duration
according to opinion
of specialist
crash: notification
refusal/revocation
depend. on degree
conditional licence
certific. of
specialist
13
The WG outlined some difficulties in the present situation:
• a statement mentioning “only in exceptional cases” is not only too vague and ambiguous
(what is exceptional: 1% ? 1/1000?; of people with diabetes; of commercial drivers; of
applicants?), but also doesn’t guarantee safety. We should define the criteria and process to
select people with diabetes with a safe driving profile, instead of stating the frequency that
this can be allowed.
• In the past, too much emphasis has been put on general selection criteria. Although some
obvious criteria can be used to try to foresee the risk of crashes, guidelines about how the
medical condition will be treated and monitored by the patient is of (at least) equal
importance for a safe implementation of the rules. In diabetes, the patient himself plays a
major role in the treatment and the monitoring of his disease. Accurate and frequent self
blood glucose monitoring and optimal diabetes education are of major importance for a
stabilised diabetes regulation.
• Criteria that are seen as too rigid may result in a situation where the diabetic and his doctor
fail to report the medical condition. Such criteria may also deter patients from seeking
optimal assessment and treatment. This generates an unsafe situation.
• Physicians are often unaware of the guidelines and criteria used to evaluate the driving
fitness of people with certain medical conditions. The proper implementation of these rules
with clear guidelines is of major importance. Also, the support of the relevant medical
associations would assist in implementation.
• The way the medical regulations are brought into practice is very heterogeneous between
the member states: notification by the patient (with or without authorisation from general
practitioner or specialist), medical evaluation by own general practitioner/specialist or
other general practitioner/specialist, medical evaluation by specialised drivers licensing
agency, etc.
• The assessment criteria for group 2 (commercial driving) can not be extrapolated from the
data for group 1. These group 2 drivers have longer driving times and drive longer annual
distances. The severity of accidents and number of fatalities in group 2 is worse than for
group 1. Moreover, a lot of these drivers have to adhere to a strict working time frame.
Some of these are also involved in the loading and unloading of their cargo: this has a clear
influence on their risk of hypoglycaemia.
• A more difficult situation is the transport of people: such drivers have a specific
responsibility for the safety of these passengers. In a situation of incipient hypoglycaemia,
it is psychologically more difficult for the driver to stop, check his BG, and eat something
(and wait for 20-30 minutes), than for a driver of goods.
• A special situation is driving emergency vehicles: each time-delay (eg by hypoglycaemia)
could have a major influence on the outcome of the victim(s) of the emergency (accident,
fire, etc).
14
HYPOGLYCAEMIA IN DIABETES
Unrecognised hypoglycaemia represents a significant driving hazard. Therefore, some
aspects of hypoglycaemia are discussed here in more detail. This topic was recently reviewed
by Cryer (2002 and 2003) and Zammit (2005)
Introduction
The brain primarily uses glucose as its source of energy. When blood glucose falls under 3.3
mmol/l, symptoms of neuroglycopenia and cognitive impairment develops, potentially
interfering with driving ability. However, adrenergic symptoms often start at higher glucose
values, giving the patient time to react to these warnings and to eat some food containing
carbohydrates to correct the BG value. The problem is that not all patients have symptoms of
low blood glucose (silent hypoglycaemia). Therefore, patients are dependent on recognition
of hypoglycaemic symptoms or self-monitoring of blood glucose to detect hypoglycaemia. As
many patients lose their warning signs or do not perform frequent monitoring of blood
glucose, the chance of recognising episodes during daily life is not optimal. Unrecognised
hypoglycaemia may be corrected by chance, by a planned meal, by dissipation of the insulin
effect, or by counter-regulatory mobilisation of glucose from the liver, or may progress to
severe hypoglycaemia with cognitive impairment and need for assistance from a third party.
About 70-80% of all hypoglycaemic episodes(blood glucose <3.0 mmol/l ) are not
accompanied by symptoms. Silent hypoglycaemia is an underestimated problem especially in
Type 1 patients.
Frequency in T1DM
Hypoglycaemia is the most common side effect of insulin treatment.
Asymptomatic plasma
glucoses lower than 60mg/dl are frequent: as many of 10% of the BG readings of a patients
attempting to obtain good glycaemic control will fall in this range. Mild symptomatic
hypoglycaemia will happen on an average of 2 times a week, and will often be corrected by
the patients themselves.
More problematic are the severe hypoglycaemia’s
, where often somebody else (family,
colleague at work, nurse or physician) have to intervene with treatment. This happens
approximately to at least one third of patients one or more times a year. The risk of severe
hypoglycaemia is skewed and a subgroup of patients experience most of the severe
hypoglycaemic episodes per year. Risk factors for severe hypoglycaemia are impaired
hypoglycaemic awareness, C-peptide negative (no endogenous insulin secretion and therefore
no glucagon response to hypoglycaemia), strict hypoglycaemic control and long duration of
diabetes.
Frequency in T2DM
The frequency of hypoglycaemia is substantially lower in type 2 diabetes. The risk of severe
hypoglycaemia in diet treated Type 2 diabetes is nil.
Some oral antidiabetic drugs (eg alfa-glucosidase inhibitors, metformin, thiazolidinediones)
give no or a very low risk for hypoglycaemia.
15
Other oral drugs (eg sulfonylureas and glinides) can induce hypoglycaemia, but at a much
lower rate than insulin.
The frequency of hypoglycaemia in insulin treated type 2 diabetes depends on the duration of
the diabetes. The frequency is lower than for type 1 diabetes in the beginning. Once they lose
their ability to secrete insulin after some years, the frequency for severe hypoglycaemia
becomes similar in type 2 and type 1 diabetes when matched for disease duration. As in
Type 1 patients, a subgroup of insulin treated Type 2 patients will also experience most of the
severe hypoglycaemic episodes per year.
Clinical risk factors for hypoglycaemia:
1. Insulin (or oral hypoglycaemic drugs) doses are excessive, ill-timed, or of the wrong type.
2. Glucose delivery is decreased: eg after missed meals.
3. Endogenous glucose production is decreased: eg after alcohol ingestion.
4. Glucose utilization is increased: eg during exercise.
5. Sensitivity to insulin is increased eg late after exercise, after weight loss, with increased
fitness, or improved glycaemic control, or during treatment with an insulin sensitizer.
6. Insulin clearance is decreased, eg with progressive renal failure.
Treatment
Most episodes of hypoglycaemia can be effectively self-treated by ingestion of 20g glucose
or carbohydrate in the form of glucose tablets, a soft drink, juice, a sweet or a meal.
Sometimes, this has to be repeated after 15–20 min if symptoms have not improved or the
monitored blood glucose remains low.
The glycaemic response to oral glucose is transient. Therefore the ingestion of a snack or
meal is advisable within 2 hours. Parenteral treatment (intravenous glucose or subcutaneous
glucagons) is only needed in the exceptional situation where the diabetic is unable or
unwilling to take food orally.
Hypoglycaemia unawareness
Some diabetics experience a loss of the warning (largely reduced sympathetic
neural(adrenergic and cholinergic) actions) symptoms or an impaired perception of or reaction
to the early warning symptoms of hypoglycaemia. The early warning symptoms such as
anxiety, palpitations, hunger, sweating or tremor normally occur when the blood glucose is
about 55-60mg (3.0mmol/l). The patients with unawareness do not realise that the plasma
blood glucose level is decreasing below the threshold for neuroglucopenia (about 2.5mmol/l)
and do not correct the blood glucose by food intake. This is called hypoglycaemia
unawareness. By this, such patients have a 10 times higher frequency of severe
hypoglycaemia. This situation can be induced by frequent hypoglycaemia’s or chronic
hypoglycaemia by itself and a vicious circle of recurrent hypoglycaemia is created. After a
hypoglycaemic episode the patients will display attenuated symptoms and counter-regulation
for 24-48 hours. Note that by meticulous avoidance of hypoglycaemia for 2-3 weeks,
hypoglycaemia unawareness and the reduced counter-regulatory response are reversible,
especially in patients with less than 10 years duration of diabetes. After 20-30 years duration
of diabetes at least 40% of the patients display hypoglycaemia unawareness. The explanation
of the unawareness after many years duration of diabetes is unknown.
16
Hypoglycaemia unawareness is observed in at least 25% of Type 1 diabetics and 10 % of
Type 2 diabetics. After 20-30 years duration of diabetes more than 50% of the patients will
display hypoglycaemic unawareness.
Three quarter of people experiencing severe hypoglycaemia during the last year, experienced
only 1 such an event; one quarter (those with hypoglycaemic unawareness) have more than 1
event a year and were responsible for about 60% of all hypoglycaemic events. This small
subgroup (about 3 % of the patients with T1DM or long standing T2DM) has a very high risk
for recurrent severe unrecognised hypoglycaemia, and are therefore at risk if driving.
Severe hypoglycaemia requiring emergency medical services intervention.
In the group with Type 1 diabetes, only 1 in 10 of those experiencing severe hypoglycaemia
required emergency service treatment compared with 1 in 3 of the group with type 2 diabetes.
About 7 % of type 1 and or type 2 diabetics, and 1% of sulfonylurea treated patients needed
emergency treatment in the past 12 months. Risk factors were older age, a history of previous
hypoglycaemia, longer duration of diabetes, higher HbA1c, and socio economic deprivation..
Influence of hypoglycaemia on driving performance.
The effect of hypoglycaemia on driving performance and on the drivers awareness of their
driving impairment was studied by the group of Cox (1993).
These studies showed that starting at moderate BG (2.6 +/- 0.28 mmol/l), there was an
impairment of driving capacity. About 44% of these diabetics did not react on these driving
decrements and indicated they would drive in these circumstances.
See infra.
Prevention
A well-informed person with the ability and willingness to take charge of his or her diabetes
is key to successful glycaemic control, including the prevention of hypoglycaemia.
Therefore, patient education and empowerment, frequent self-monitoring of BG, flexible
insulin and other drug regimens , individualised glycaemic goals, and ongoing professional
guidance are crucial factors in the prevention of hypoglycaemia.
However, Cox et al (2003) reported that one half of the Type 1 diabetic drivers and three
quarters of the Type 2 diabetic drivers had never discussed hypoglycaemia and driving with
their physician.
Graveling et al (2004) reported on a questionnaire in the UK. About 87% of patients reported
keeping carbohydrates in their vehicle. About 60 % never tested blood glucose before driving
and 38% never carried a blood glucose meter when driving. Most of the participants of the
questionnaire would stop driving to treat a hypoglycaemia, but only 14% would wait longer
than 30 minutes to drive again.
17
Educational points for diabetes and driving.
The following items are important for each driver with diabetes, treated with insulin or oral
hypoglycaemic drugs:
¾ understand the interaction between food-insulin-activity
¾ have rapid absorbable carbohydrate available in the car and have a BG meter available
in the car to measure BG before and during long trips
¾ inject insulin at regular times
¾ do not skip meals
¾ anticipate any abnormal physical activities (eg loading/unloading a car)
¾ do not drive between injection and meal
¾ if HYPOGLYCAEMIA OCCURS: stop as soon as possible, take carbohydrates
wait 15-30 min before driving again
Research and future directions:
New insulin analogs have insulin profiles that allow better adaptation of the insulin treatment
to the life style of the person with diabetes. Clinical studies show lower frequencies of
hypoglycaemia with these new treatment modalities.
Also for the oral hypoglycaemic drugs, clinical research is going on to study differences in the
hypoglycaemic potential of new drugs eg glinides, GLP-1 analogues and DPP-IV inhibitors.
Today, non-invasive continuous glucose monitoring gives warnings to the patient if BG is
lowering too fast or if a low threshold value is reached, allowing the patient to treat the
tendency to hypoglycaemia in time. This could be of particularly value for the diabetic driver
of group 2 (professional driver) and for the patients with hypoglycaemia unawareness. The
first clinical studies with such non-invasive continuous glucose monitoring devices are under
way.
Therefore, the WG stresses the necessity to follow this research closely, in order to adapt the
regulations and guidelines quickly in this rapidly changing field.
In summary:
Hypoglycaemia is a frequent event in diabetes, especially in insulin treated patients. Some of
these hypo’s are recognised in an early stage and can be easily treated by eating some food
with carbohydrates. Proper patient education, the availability of a blood glucose meter and
carbohydrates are essential in this regard.
A subgroup of patients lose their ability to recognise the early signs of hypoglycaemia: this is
called “hypoglycaemia unawareness”. Their risk for severe hypoglycaemia is at least 10 times
higher than that of diabetics without this hypoglycaemic unawareness. This makes these
persons unfit to drive. Frequent severe hypoglycaemia or self blood glucose monitoring
showing frequent low values (more than 15% below 70mg/dl or 3.5 mmol/l) are alarm signals
of hypoglycaemia unawareness. Once recognised, this situation can be treated in the majority
18
of patients: avoidance of all hypo’s during 2 or 3 weeks (allowing a slightly higher glucose
target than usual) gives a return of the awareness, especially in patients with less than 10-20
years duration of diabetes.
References: hypoglycaemia
Cox, D.J., Gonder-Frederick, L.A. & Clarke, W.L. (1993). Driving decrements in type I
diabetes during moderate hypoglycaemia. Diabetes, 42(2): 239.
Cox, D.J., Gonder-Frederick, L.A., Kovatchev, B.P., Julian, D.M., & Clarke, W.L.
(2000). Progressive hypoglycaemia’s impact on driving simulation performance:
Occurrence, awareness, and correction. Diabetes Care, 23(2): 163-170.
Cryer P. Hypoglycaemia: the limiting factor in the glycaemic management of type 1 and type
2 diabetes. Diabetologia 2002. 45:937-948
Cryer P, Davis S, Shammom H. Hypoglycaemia in Diabetes (ADA Technical Review).
Diabetes Care 2003; 26: 1902-1912.
Zammitt N. Hypoglycaemia in type 2 diabetes. Pathofysiology, frequency and effects of
different treatment modalities. Diabetes Care 2005;28:2948-2961
Leese GP, Wang J, Broomhall J, Kelly P, Marsden A, Morrison W, Frier BM, Morris
AD, the DARTS/MEMO Collaboration. Frequency of severe hypoglycaemia requiring
emergency treatment in type 1 and type 2 diabetes: a population-based study of health service
resource use. Diabetes Care 2003; 26:1176–1180,
Donnelly LA, Morris AD, Frier BM, Ellis JD, Donnan PT, Durrant R, Band MM,
Reekie G, Leese GP, the DARTS/MEMO Collaboration. Frequency and predictors of
hypoglycaemia in type 1 and insulin-treated type 2 diabetes: a population based study. Diabet
Med 2005; 22:749–755
Henderson JN, Allen KV, Deary IJ, Frier BM: Hypoglycaemia in insulin-treated type 2
diabetes: frequency, symptoms and impaired awareness. Diabet Med 2003; 20: 1016–1021
Frier B. Morbidity of hypoglycaemia in type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Research and Clinical
practice. 2004. S47-S52
Frier B. Epidemiology, short and long-term consequences of hypoglycaemia. Diab Nutr
Metab. 2002: 15:378-385.
Graveling A, Warren R, Frier B (2004). Hypoglycaemia and driving in people with insulin-
treated diabetes: adherence to recommendations for avoidance. Diabetic Medicine 2004, 21,
1014-1019
Cox D, et al. Diabetes and driving mishaps (2003) Diabetes Care 26:2339-2334
19
RISK OF CRASHES IN VARIOUS CATEGORIES.
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
For this report, we started from the recent literature search mentioned in an exhaustive review
commissioned by the Swedish National Road Administration, and performed by the Monash
University (Accident Research Centre) in Clayton, Australia:
www.monash.edu.au/muarc//reports/muarc213.pdf
Moreover, we performed our own literature search in PubMed using the search terms
“diabetes driving”, “diabetes crash”, “diabetes car accident”. All articles in the English
language, and published in accessible journals were collected. Articles not cited in the
Monash survey were added to this text and to the references.
Introduction
There are some inconsistencies in the road safety outcome studies, with considerable
heterogeneity of study protocols. This is a general remark for all medical conditions, not just
for diabetes.
¾ Which eligibility criteria were used (eg some high risk patients were eliminated in
advance; was there a focus on problem cases; were people with certain diabetes
complications allowed in the studies?, etc)
¾ What type of Diabetes Mellitus (T1DM, T2DM)?
Duration of DM?
Treatment (insulin, oral hypoglycaemic drugs, diet only)?
¾ What was the distribution of other risk factors (gender, age, urban situation, etc)
¾ What was the unit of evaluation (year, distance travelled?)
¾ What was measured (crashes, hospital admissions, violations)
¾ Which crashes were evaluated (all, injurious, fault, fatal?)
¾ There was often a problem of underreporting
¾ How recent was the study (the present traffic situation is far more complex than 10-20
years ago, the present treatment modalities provoke more frequent hypoglycaemic
events than 10-20 years ago.
In evaluating the crash risk of people with a medical condition, we should realise that the total
risk of someone is not only influenced by the any increased risk from the condition, but also
by the reduction in risk associated with self-regulation and adaptive behaviour.
Driving performance studies (with a simulator) have the disadvantage of being artificial, and
are on an individual basis. They are less predictive for the future driving performance for
people with diabetes than for those who have a functional orthopaedic disability or a visual
problem.
20
GROUP 1
We will summarise the studies mentioned in the report of the Monash University (Accident
Research Centre): www.monash.edu.au/muarc//reports/muarc213.pdf
See summary of most
important studies in table 16 on p161 of this document (= p178 in Acrobat Reader), taken
over in Annex 1 of this document.
We also include the studies from our own literature search.
Crashes
Vernon et al (2002) found that drivers with diabetes on restricted licenses had a not
significant elevation of their crash risk (RR 1.38; 95% CI 0.75-2.54), while drivers with
diabetes without license restrictions had a significant elevation (RR 1.3; 95% CI 1.23-1.38).
In their discussion, they propose some possible interpretations (and biases) in their findings.
Hansotia and Broste (1991) found a slightly higher risk for crashes in diabetics (1.32;
p=0.01).
Koepsell et al (1994) studied the rate of injury crashes in older drivers and found a significant
elevation in diabetics in general (OR 2.6; CI 1.4-4.7). In subgroup analysis, they found a
significant difference in insulin treated diabetics, but not in OHA (oral hypoglycaemic agents)
treated or diet treated people. A diabetes duration of more than 5 year (OR 3.9) and a co-
existing coronary heart disease (OR 8.0) were also linked at a higher risk for crashes.
Staplin et al (1999) studied also an older population, and did find a slightly increased risk for
diabetics (OR 1.34).
McGwin et al studied also an older population (> 65 y) by self report (telephone interview).
They didn’t find a significant association for at-fault crashes and diabetes. They didn’t find an
association between diabetic retinopathy and at-fault crashes. However, prior crash
involvement influenced clearly the relationship between diabetes and at-fault crashes.
The study of Salzberg and Moffat (1998) is difficult to interpret due to the very limited
number of diabetics (27) and a lot of methodological problems.
Eadington and Frier (1998) did find a lower crash rate in people with diabetes. Of these
crashes, 16% were attributed to a hypoglycaemic event. This study showed also that self-
reporting of their medical condition was not done by a third of the study group. Interestingly,
the majority that ceased driving did so on a voluntary base.
Songer et al (1988) did find a slightly higher crash rate (also after adjustment for distance
travelled) in diabetics, but these differences were not significant. Sub analysis showed a
higher crash risk in women with diabetes. Only 6 % from the crashes were attributed to
hypoglycaemic events.
Stevens (1989) did find a similar crash rate in diabetics and non-diabetics, even if expressed
by kilometres driven or by driving time/ year. About 29% declared a hypoglycaemic event
while driving in the previous year. There was a relation between the number of
hypoglycaemic reactions while driving and the total number of crashes in the previous five
year period.
Songer (2002) studied a group of type 1 diabetics, some with medical complications
(retinopathy, neuropathy, kidney disease, heart disease, hypoglycaemic unawareness). Crash
21
frequency was not related to glycaemic control, use of insulin treatment, hypoglycaemia
unawareness, and neuropathy. Crashes were associated with younger age, miles driven, and
severe (not mild!) hypoglycaemia.
Cox et al (2001) compared self reported crash rates of persons with T1DM and T2DM with
those of their spouses. The crash rate of drivers with T1DM was twice of that of their spouse.
For T2DM, there was a slight non-significant elevation, even it they were treated with insulin.
Songer (1998) described some results from the DCCT trial concerning accident histories.
There was no clear difference between the intensively treated group and the less intensively
treated control group. However, the determinant factor appeared to be a history of severe
hypoglycaemia (resulting in a loss of consciousness) over the past 2 years: these individuals
had a doubling of their risk for a crash accident.
Violations, citations
Vernon et al (2002) didn’t find a significant difference in the rate of citations for diabetics
compared with persons without a medical condition.
Salzberg and Moffat (1998) came to the same findings
Hansotia and Broste (1991) didn’t find a difference either.
Treatment modalities
Mc Gwin et al (1999) didn’t find a significant effect of treatment modalities (insulin, OHA,
diet) on at fault crash risk.
In contrast, Koepsell et al (1994) found significantly higher crash rates amongst insulin
treated (OR 3.1) and OHA treated (OR 5.8) drivers. However, these authors used medical
records instead of crash reports what could induce a bias.
Jude et al (1998) studied the binocular visual acuity immediately after pupil dilatation (an
examination that should be done at least annually in all diabetics). They found a significant
reduction of this visual acuity, especially under condition of glare. A practical conclusion of
their work is that people with diabetes should be advised not to drive for at least 2 hours after
pupillary dilatation.
Driving performance
The effect of hypoglycaemia on driving performance and on the drivers awareness of their
driving impairment was studied by the group of Cox (1993).
These studies showed that starting at moderate hypoglycaemia (BG 2.6 +/- 0.28 mmol/l),
there was an impairment of driving capacity. About 44% of these diabetics did not react on
these driving decrements and indicated they would drive in these circumstances.
It is not clear how these findings can be translated to the actual driving risk of such patients.
Instructions and information for people with diabetes
Cox et al (2003) reported that one half of the type 1 diabetic drivers and three quarters of the
type 2 diabetic drivers had never discussed hypoglycaemia and driving with their physician.
22
Graveling et al (2004) reported in a UK study that 32 % already had experienced
hypoglycaemia while driving, and 13% did so during the last year. About 87% reported
keeping carbohydrates in their vehicle. About 60 % never tested blood glucose before driving
and 38% never carried a blood glucose meter when driving. Most of the participants of the
questionnaire would stop driving to treat a hypoglycaemia, but only 14% would wait longer
than 30 minutes to drive again.
IN SUMMARY FOR GROUP 1:
The results of the studies of crash risk and diabetes are conflicting: some show a slightly
higher risk, some no difference, and some a slightly lower risk. The differences are small,
compared with the differences in crash risk that we see in the general population (eg influence
of gender or age: see fig 1), and seems therefore acceptable.
There is no clear relationship with the type of diabetes (T1DM or T2DM), or with the
treatment modality (insulin, oral hypoglycaemic agents).
Recent severe hypoglycaemia or hypoglycaemic unawareness or past crashes seems to be
predictive for future crashes.
It is obvious that some major diabetes complications are relevant for the driving capacity of
people with diabetes: eg diminished visual acuity in serious diabetes retinopathy. In these
cases, the same impairment on driving ability can be expected as by non-diabetics with
similar problems.
Health care professionals should be encouraged to discuss driving and diabetes with their
patients during consultation. People with diabetes should be educated about the influence of
their disease and their treatment (with special reference to hypoglycaemia) on their driving
capacity.
Health care professionals (physicians and diabetes nurses) should have access to clear,
accessible (eg on the internet) guidelines about diabetes and driving, and should be trained in
giving patient education on this topic.
23
GROUP 2
In many countries, a driving licence for group 2 was (until recently) not granted for people
with diabetes. Therefore, the data on road safety in this group 2 are sparse.
Songer T et al (1993) and Lave et al (1993) from the same Pittsburgh group conducted a
(hypothetical) risk analysis to evaluate the impact of licensing diabetics (insulin treated and
non-insulin treated) for commercial vehicles on the number of crashes in the USA, and they
put this risk into perspective to other risk factors such as allowing young persons to drive a
truck, etc. They conclude that the additional risk from insulin-using CMV (commercial motor
vehicle) drivers was within the present range of acceptable risks. They stress that
hypoglycaemic unawareness and a history of severe hypoglycaemia are strong risk factors,
and excluding these drivers could reduce the risk of accidents considerably.
In the FHWA Waiver Program Risk Assessment, the FHWA in the USA evaluated the crash
risk of drivers with diabetes that received grandfather rights in the Waiver program (1993-
1996).
This was a group who met strict qualifications, no history of diabetic complications or recent
severe hypoglycaemic events, and with clear stringent guidelines concerning the frequency of
self blood glucose monitoring, and the actions to take when BG became too low. The FHWA
found an accident rate of 2,309 accidents per million vehicles miles travelled (VMT) for
diabetics compared with a national accident rate of 2,605 per million VMT.
Another FHWA study in 1998 evaluated insulin treated drivers of CMV’s, driving under
intrastate programs or under grandfathered interstate programs. They found an accident rate of
1,950 per million VMT. There was some discussion concerning the comparison group to use:
CMV operators (1,444) or national accident rate (2,272), so that a firm conclusion couldn’t be
drawn.
Laberge-Nadeau et al (2000) reported on the results of truck-permit holders in Quebec,
Canada during 1987-1990. For articulated trucks (AT), they found no significant difference
between diabetics and a healthy group. For single unit trucks (ST), they did find an increased
crash risk of 1.68 compared with a healthy group. They speculate that several factors can play
a role in the discrepancy between these findings: perhaps that ST drivers work in a more
stressful environment, and spend more time in handling materials than AT drivers; perhaps
that for the selection of AT drivers, higher medical standards were used than for ST drivers,
etc. In these data, a self-selection effect (the more severely affected individuals restrict their
driving even if they have a permit) or the “healthy worker effect” (only the less affected
individuals with this disease apply for a permit) cannot be excluded.
Since 2005, exemption applications can be asked for individuals with diabetes in the USA,
and this under very strict criteria: at least 3 years of safe driving experience with the disease
(eg intrastate), no more than 1 severe hypoglycaemia during the last 5 years and at least 1 year
stabilisation since the last severe hypoglycaemia, no significant diabetes complications, meet
the current vision standards, perform at least a BG measurement every 2 to 4 hours, regular
evaluation by an endocrinologist, etc. (details on
http://dmses.dot.gov/docimages/pdf88/253696_web.pdf
). There are, as yet, no study results
available for this group of exemptions.
24
IN SUMMARY FOR GROUP 2:
Only limited data are available for this group, exclusively from the USA and Canada (not
from Europe).
These data suggest an acceptable accident risk on condition that there are clear requirements
of the absence of hypoglycaemic unawareness or severe hypoglycaemia, and with stringent
guidelines on the frequency of self blood glucose monitoring and on the treatment of BG’s
under 5.5 mmol/l and above 22 mmol/l.
25
26
27
28
References
American Diabetes Association (2003). National Diabetes Fact Sheet.
www.diabetes.org/main/info/facts/facts_natl.jsp
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Amiel, S.A. (1999). Diabetes and driving – an insular approach? (Editorial). Diabetic
Medicine, 16, 271-272.
Canadian Medical Association. (2000). Determining Medical Fitness to Drive: A Guide
for Physicians. 6
th Ed. Ottawa, Canada.
Clarke, B., Ward, J.D. & Enoch, B.A. (1980). Hypoglycaemia in insulin-dependent
diabetic drivers. British Medical Journal, 586.
Clarke, W.L., Cox, D.J., Gonder-Frederick, L.A., & Kovatchev, B.P. (1999).
Hypoglycemia and the decision to drive a motor vehicle by persons with
diabetes. Journal of the American Medical Association. 282(8): 750-754.
Cox, D.J., Clarke, W., Gonder-Frederick, L.A., & Kovatchev, B.P. (2001). Driving
mishaps and hypoglycaemia: risk and prevention. International Journal of
Clinical Practice, Supp 123, 38-42.
Cox, D.J., Gonder-Frederick, L.A., Kovatchev, B.P., Julian, D.M., & Clarke, W.L.
(2000). Progressive hypoglycaemia’s impact on driving simulation performance:
Occurrence, awareness, and correction. Diabetes Care, 23(2): 163-170.
Cox, D.J., Gonder-Frederick, L.A., Kovatchev, B.P., Julian, D.M., & Clarke, W.L.
(2001). Self-treatment of hypoglycaemia while driving. Diabetes Research and
Clinical Practice, 54, 17-26.
Cox, D.J., Gonder-Frederick, L.A. & Clarke, W.L. (1993). Driving decrements in type I
diabetes during moderate hypoglycaemia. Diabetes, 42(2): 239.
Cox D, et al. Diabetes and driving mishaps (2003) Diabetes Care 26:2339-2334
Diabetes Australia (2002). Diabetes Facts. www.diabetesaustralia.com.au.
The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. (1993). The effect of
intensive insulin therapy on the development and progression of long-term
complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. New England Journal of
Medicine, 329, 997-986.
Eadington, D.W. & Frier, B.M. (1989). Type 1 diabetes and driving experience: an
eight-year cohort study. Diabetic Medicine, 6, 137-141.
Essex, N. (1994). When can a diabetic patient drive? The Practitioner, 238, 667-674.
Flanagan, D.E., Watson, J., Everett, D., Cavan, D. & Kerr, D. (2000). Driving and
insulin – consensus, conflict or confusion? Diabetic Medicine, 17, 316-320.
29
Hansotia & Broste (1991) The effect of epilepsy or diabetes mellitus on the risk of
automobile accidents. The New England Journal of Medicine, 324(1), 22-26.
Flanagan, D.E.H., Watson, J., Everett, J., Cavan, D. & Kerr, D. (2000). Driving and
insulin, consensus, conflict and confusion? Diabetic Medicine, 17, 316-320.
Frier, B.M. (2000). Hypoglycaemia and driving performance. Diabetes Care, 23(2), 148-
150
Frier, B.M. (1992). Driving and diabetes: by not notifying the licensing authority many
diabetics are breaking the law (Editorial). British Medical Journal,
305(6864):1238-1239.
Gill, G., Durston, J., Johnston, R., MacLeod, K. & Watkins, P. Insulin treated diabetics
and driving in the UK. Diabetic Medicine, 19, 435-439.
Graveling A, Warren R, Frier B (2004). Hypoglycaemia and driving in people with insulin-
treated diabetes: adherence to recommendations for avoidance. Diabetic Medicine 2004, 21,
1014-1019
Hansotia, P. & Broste, S. (1991). The effect of epilepsy or diabetes mellitus on the risk
of automobile accidents. New England Journal of Medicine, 324, 22-26.
Hulbert, M.F.G. & Vernon, A. (1992). Passing the DVLC Field regulations following
bilateral pan-retinal photocoagulation in diabetics. Eye, 6, 456-460.
Jude, E.B., Ryan, B., O’Leary, B.M., Gibson, J.M. & Dodson, P.M. (1998). Pupillary
dilatation and driving in diabetic patients. Diabetic Medicine, 15, 143-147.
Koepsell, T., Wolf, M. & McCloskey, L. (1994). Medical conditions and motor vehicle
collision injuries in older adults. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 42,
695-700.
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Lindgren, M., Eckert, B., Sterberg, G. & Agardh, C.D. (1996). Restitution of
neurophysiological functions, performance, and subjective symptoms after
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McGwin Jr, G., Pulley, L., Sims, R.V. & Roseman, J.M. (1999). Diabetes and
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30
McGwin Jr, G., Sims, R.V., Pulley, L. & Roseman, J.M. (2000). Relations among
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Pearson, A.R., Tanner, V., Keightley, S.J. & Caswell, A.G. (1998). What effect does
laser photocoagulation have on driving visual fields in diabetics? Eye, 12, 64-68.
Ratner, R.E. & Whitehouse, F.W. (1989). Motor vehicles, hypoglycaemia, and diabetic
drivers. Diabetes Care, 12(3): 217-222.
Salzberg, P. & Moffat, J. (1998). The Washington State Department of Licensing
Special Exam Program: An Evaluation. Washington Traffic Safety Commission.
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305(6864), 1265.
Songer T, Lave L, LaPorte R (1993). The Risk of Licensing Persons with Diabetes to Drive
Trucks. Risk Analysis, 13, 319-326
Songer T (1998). The influence of Diabetes on the Social and Economic Events of Men.
Diabetes Spectrum, 11, 93-100
Songer, T. (2002). Low blood sugar and motor vehicle crashes in persons with Type 1
diabetes. 46th Annual Proceedings of the Association for the Advancement of
Automotive Medicine. Tempe, Arizona, Sept 30-Oct 2.
Songer, T.J., LaPorte, R.E., Dorman, J.S., Orchard, T.J., Cruickshanks, K.J., Becker,
D.J. & Drash, A.L. (1988). Motor vehicle accidents and IDDM. Diabetes Care,
11(9), 701-707.
Stevens, A.B., Roberts, M., McKane, R, Atkinson, A.B., Bell, P.M. & Hayes, J.R.
(1989). Motor vehicle driving among diabetics taking insulin and non-diabetics.
British Medical Journal, 299, 591-595.
Swedish National Road Administration. (1998). Swedish National Road Administration
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Veneman, Th. F. (1996). Diabetes mellitus and traffic incidents. The Netherlands
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Vernon, D.D., Diller, E.M., Cook, L.J., Reading, J.C. & Deane, J. M. (2001). Further
analysis of drivers licensed with medical conditions in Utah. National Highway
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31
Vernon, D.D., Diller, E.M., Cook, L.J., Reading, J.C., Suruda, A.J. & Deane, J. M.
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32
Concluding remarks and comments
This is a summary of the concluding remarks (in italic) of the WG with some comments.
General banner: Responsibilities
The WG has concerns regarding the current lack of implementation of the existing driver
licensing medical criteria. It would appear that the majority of the general public and health care
professionals are not aware of these criteria.
The WG suggested that there should be more emphasis on the responsibilities of licensing
authorities, health care professionals and drivers. These responsibilities should be included as a
general statement in the new directives and budgets should be dedicated to an information
campaign.
Of course, this is applicable not only to diabetes, but to each relevant medical condition.
1.
Licensing authorities:
should provide information to both drivers and health care professionals
It would appear that most drivers are not familiar with the legal issues concerning driving and the
criteria used to evaluate the driving abilities of people with certain medical conditions.
Several methods to provide information were proposed: leaflets, websites and advertisements via
magazines, newspapers, TV and radio.
The importance of the support of the relevant medical associations was recognised.
The health care professionals often appear unaware of the legal issues concerning driving and the
criteria used to evaluate the driving abilities of people with relevant medical conditions.
Clear guidelines concerning this matter (preferably on the web) would be very helpful. Good
examples of these are in existence from Canada, New Zealand, and Australia:
Canada: http://www.diabetes.ca/section_advocacy/adv_CPG_driving.asp
and
http://www.diabetes.ca/Files/DrivingGuidelines.pdf
New Zealand: http://www.ltsa.govt.nz/licensing/docs/ltsa-medical-aspects.pdf
Australia: http://www.austroads.com.au/upload_files/docs/AFTD%202003-F_A-WEBREV1.pdf
Authorities in each member state should finance such initiatives, as these are crucial to
implementation of the proposed criteria.
2. Health care professionals:
should advise patients of the possible impact medical conditions and treatments could
have on their driving capabilities
Many patients have never discussed the influence of hypoglycaemia on their driving abilities
with their physicians (see literature review).
It is recognised that health care professionals have to cover numerous aspects of diabetes care
and its complications during the short consultation period. Driving may not always be considered
a priority topic at this time and may be omitted from discussions.
More attention should be given to the training and continuous education of health care
professionals to the importance of this.
33
3. Drivers:
should honestly assess their driving capabilities with regard to their medical condition
and treatments, and act appropriately.
Drivers with a medical condition are often resistant to declare this to the authorities, because they
fear that in doing so this will be an automatic ban to driving. This belief is often due to a lack of
information and to misconception, and plays a major role in under reporting of relevant medical
conditions.
General banner for diabetes mellitus
The primary concern for drivers with diabetes mellitus treated with medication is
hypoglycaemia. This is generally not a problem with lifestyle and diet-controlled
diabetes.
Unrecognised hypoglycaemia is the most relevant driving hazard for drivers with diabetes.
Hypoglycaemia is generally not a problem if the diabetes is treated by lifestyle and dietary
measures alone. This is also the case when treated with certain oral drugs such as metformin,
alfa-glucosidase inhibitors, glitazones, GLP-1 analogues or DPP-IV inhibitors, because these do
not provoke severe hypoglycaemia when used as monotherapy or in combinations with other
drugs in this category.
Treatment with other oral medication such as sulphonylureas and glinides may provoke
hypoglycaemia, similar to that seen with insulin treatment, also in combination with the
aforementioned drugs.
People with hypoglycaemic unawareness are at particular risk of developing sudden
unrecognised hypoglycaemia (see higher).
In assessment of all applicants/drivers, consideration should be given to the presence of
any diabetic complications such as retinopathy, neuropathy, nephropathy, foot problems
and cardiovascular complications.
A minority of people with diabetes will develop diabetic complications that could interfere with
their ability to drive safely. The most frequent example is severe diabetic retinopathy, with
diminished visual acuity.
The workgroup proposes that the same criteria for assessing these complications should be used
as for non-diabetics (eg see the visual criteria).
Group 1
Driving licences may be issued to, or renewed for, applicants or drivers who have
diabetes mellitus. When treated with medication, they should be subject to authorised
medical opinion and regular medical review, appropriate to each case, but at no greater
than a 5-year interval.
Diabetes per se is not a bar to the holding of a driving entitlement. A person with diabetes,
stabilised and without relevant diabetes complications or recurrent hypoglycaemia events can be
considered for Group 1 entitlement (see literature review).
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The stability of the diabetes, and development of complications may change with time.
Therefore, the WG proposes regular medical licensing review at no greater than 5 year intervals.
The members of the WG on Diabetes and Driving were of the opinion that the final assessment
of driving ability should preferentially be done by an independent doctor, not by the treating
physician. Of course, both patient and treating physician can give relevant information for this
assessment.
Driving licences shall be withdrawn (revoked) from drivers who have recurrent severe
hypoglycaemia and/or impaired awareness of hypoglycaemia.
A sporadic severe hypoglycaemic event can never be anticipated or excluded with certainty, but
has no significant influence on the overall crash risk of an individual.
However, recurrent severe hypoglycaemia is usually a sign of impaired hypoglycaemic
awareness. The literature shows a much higher (9 fold) risk for hypoglycaemic events in this
subgroup. These persons should not drive, and should seek medical advice. Often,
hypoglycaemia awareness may be regained after appropriate adjustment of treatment.
Understanding of the risk of hypoglycaemia and adequate control of the condition should
be demonstrated by the driver with diabetes.
Good diabetes education of the patient on how they should treat and monitor their own condition
is of major importance for safe driving. In diabetes, the patient plays a major role in the treatment
and the monitoring of the condition. Proper self blood glucose monitoring and optimal diabetes
education are of major importance for stable diabetes control.
Group 2
The words “Only in very exceptional cases” should be omitted in the present sentence about
Group 2 licensing in Annex III (Only in very exceptional cases may driving licenses be issued to,
or renewed for, applicants or drivers in this group suffering from, etc).
Such a statement is too vague and ambiguous (what is exceptional: 1% ? 1/1000?; of people with
diabetes; of commercial drivers; of applicants?), but also doesn’t guarantee safety. We should
define the criteria and process to select people with diabetes with a safe driving profile, instead of
stating the frequency that this can be allowed.
The WG proposes the following:
Consideration may be given to the issuing/renewal of Group 2 licences to drivers with
diabetes mellitus, taking into account the nature of the treatment and the type and use of
the vehicle.
Several aspects would be taken into account when evaluating the current status of the medical
condition: eg type of diabetes treatment, stability of the diabetes, frequency of self blood glucose
monitoring, hypoglycaemia’s in the past, diabetes complications, duration of diabetes, etc.
It was noted that in some Member States it is the Occupational Physician that evaluates the
patient for eligibility for Group 2 licensing.
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Such licences should be issued subject to authorised medical opinion and to regular
medical review, undertaken at no greater than a 3-year review.
This regular 3 year review should be mandatory, but this can be more frequent if required by the
authorities, the overviewing physician or the patient.
Driving licences shall not be issued to, or will be withdrawn (revoked) from, drivers who
have recurrent severe hypoglycaemia and/or impaired awareness of hypoglycaemia.
Recurrent severe hypoglycaemia and/or impaired awareness of hypoglycaemia is not compatible
with safe driving.
The applicant/driver must demonstrate understanding of the risk of hypoglycaemia and
show adequate control of the condition by blood glucose monitoring at least twice daily
and at times relevant to driving. The requirement for glucose monitoring may be
modified for a treatment which has a low risk of hypoglycaemia.
For the importance of proper diabetes education: see remarks on group 1.
The WG felt that regular blood glucose monitoring to detect low blood glucose is a prerequisite
to safe driving. Studies undertaken in the USA in Group 2 drivers (see literature review) were
done in the context of regular self blood glucose monitoring with clear guidelines regarding
procedures to be followed in the presence of low blood glucose values. The WG realises the
economic consequences for the patient, but stresses that this is one of the most important safety
measures to undertake. They recommend the use of memory glucosemeters (these are readily
available), so that the measurements can be assessed by the treating physician and by the
authorities if indicated.
A severe hypoglycaemic event during waking hours should result in reassessment of the
licensing status.
The WG stated that each severe hypoglycaemic event during waking hours should be reported,
even if this happened unrelated to driving. The driver should understand that this will not
automatically result in license withdrawal, but the cause and circumstances of the hypoglycaemic
event would be evaluated. Appropriate adjustment of the diabetes treatment would have to be
undertaken to reduce the risk of recurrence before reassessment of the driving status and possible
license reinstatement could be undertaken.
D licences should not be issued to drivers with insulin-treated diabetes mellitus.
Consideration may be given to renewal/issue of licences for drivers with type 2 diabetes,
who require treatment with once-daily insulin and oral medications.
The WG felt that there are some situations where risk of developing a severe hypoglycaemic
event is unacceptable. One of these situations is bus driving. Such drivers have a specific
responsibility for the safety of their passengers. Moreover, in a situation of incipient
hypoglycaemia, it is psychologically and physically more difficult for the driver to stop, check
his BG, eat something (and wait for 20-30 minutes), than for a driver of goods.
Insulin treated drivers should not be issued a D license. An exception could be considered for
drivers with type 2 diabetes on oral medication, who require in the evolution of their disease the
addition of one insulin injection a day, because most of these persons will have a relatively low
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risk of hypoglycaemia. Of course, all the prerequisites for group 2 formulated earlier stay in
place.
The WG did not discuss the situation of small buses (eg D1) as a consideration separate from full
category D.
EMERGENCY VEHICLES
Drivers with insulin treated diabetes mellitus should not drive emergency vehicles.
Another situation where any severe hypoglycaemia is also unacceptable is the driving of
emergency vehicles. Each time-delay (eg by hypoglycaemia) can have major influence on the
outcome of the victim(s) of the emergency (accident, fire, etc). Furthermore, because of the
“stress” involved during the driving of emergency vehicles it may mask the symptoms of
hypoglycaemia.
Therefore, the WG stated that drivers with insulin-treated diabetes mellitus should not drive
emergency vehicles.
TAXI LICENSING
It was noted that different situation/rules exist in the Member States
Group 2 licensing standards should apply to Taxi licensing.
The WG realised that different situations/rules exist in the Member States concerning taxi
licensing: sometimes this is done by the license authorities, sometimes by local authorities.
The Group 2 standards should apply.
The same problem exists for licensing requirements for the transportation of people if this is
organised and run by the employer: again there are huge differences between Member States.
Suggestions for the future:
¾ The WG felt that there was a need for continuation of the WG of experts, to evaluate new
studies and new treatment strategies. New treatment strategies currently under
development could have a major impact on the safety of driving in the future (eg new
continuous blood glucose monitoring devices with alarms are under investigation and
could play a major role in the future to detect risk of hypoglycaemia).
This WG should establish and maintain contact with other bodies outside the EU that are
dealing with similar concerns: the USA, Australia and Canada have developed protocols
for Group 2 drivers with diabetes. Modern communication techniques should enable
useful exchange of information without undue expense.
¾ As stated, it was preferred that the criteria should appear in guidelines rather than in the
law. The law cannot provide more than a framework of minimum criteria. However, the
EU could play an important role in constructing a website with suggestions for the
practical guidelines and forms for the implementation of the law. The expertise of
“centres of excellence” (be it research centres, clinical centres or driver licensing
agencies) on these matters could be disseminated by this way. Moreover, this could lead
to a better harmonisation of the specific criteria and guidelines in each Member State.
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¾ Such a WG should make suggestions for a research study to undertake a prospective
evaluation in the EU of the safety performance of drivers with diabetes doing non
commercial driving (comparing with drivers without diabetes). The reason for this
sharing of data is that the number of persons with diabetes in Group 2 is in most countries
too limited to draw any conclusion. Of course, such co-operation is only possible between
countries with directly analogous procedures regarding diabetes and driving.
July 2006,
CB, SM, PVC, DS
