Ethiopia Country Handbook This handbook provides basic

Ethiopia Country Handbook

This handbook provides basic reference information on Ethiopia, including its

geography, history, government, military forces, and communications and trans-

portation networks. This information is intended to familiarize military per sonnel

with local customs and area knowledge to assist them during their assignment

to Ethiopia.

The Marine Corps Intel ligence Activity is the community coordinator for the

Country Hand book Program. This product reﬂects the coordinated U.S. Defense

Intelligence Community position on Ethiopia.

Dissemination and use of this publication is restricted to ofﬁcial military and

government personnel from the United States of America, United Kingdom,

Canada, Australia, and other countries as required and designated for support

of coalition operations.

The photos and text reproduced herein have been extracted solely for research,

comment, and information reporting, and are intended for fair use by designated

personnel in their ofﬁcial duties, including local reproduction for training. Further

dissemination of copyrighted material contained in this docu ment, to include

excerpts and graphics, is strictly prohibited under Title 17, U.S. Code.

CONTENTS

KEY FACTS .................................................................... 1

U.S. MISSION ................................................................. 2

U.S. Embassy .............................................................. 2

GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE ..................................... 4

Geography ................................................................... 4

Land Statistics ........................................................ 5

Borders ................................................................... 6

Border Disputes ..................................................... 6

Bodies of Water ...................................................... 9

Topography ............................................................ 12

Climate ........................................................................ 17

Precipitation ........................................................... 21

Phenomena ............................................................. 21

INFRASTRUCTURE ...................................................... 23

Transportation ............................................................. 23

General Description ............................................... 23

Roads ..................................................................... 23

Rail ......................................................................... 26

Air .......................................................................... 27

Maritime ................................................................ 29

Utilities ........................................................................ 30

Electricity .............................................................. 30

Water ...................................................................... 31

Sanitation ............................................................... 32

Communication ........................................................... 32

Radio ...................................................................... 33

Television ............................................................... 34

iviv

Contents (Continued)

Telecommunication ................................................ 35

Internet ................................................................... 36

Newspapers and Magazines ................................... 37

Postal Service ......................................................... 38

Satellites ................................................................. 38

CULTURE ....................................................................... 39

Statistics ...................................................................... 39

Population Patterns ..................................................... 39

Population of the Major Cities in Ethiopia ............ 42

Population Density ...................................................... 42

Society ........................................................................ 43

People .................................................................... 44

Social Hierarchy .................................................... 48

Family .................................................................... 48

Roles of Men and Women ...................................... 50

Education and Literacy Rates ..................................... 52

Religion ....................................................................... 56

Recreation ................................................................... 59

Customs and Courtesies .............................................. 60

Cultural Considerations .............................................. 63

MEDICAL ASSESSMENT ............................................. 64

Disease Risks to Deployed U.S. Personnel ................. 64

Medical Capabilities ................................................... 67

Medical Facilities ................................................... 68

HISTORY ......................................................................... 70

Chronology of Key Events .......................................... 70

Government ................................................................. 76

National Level ........................................................ 77

Local Level ............................................................ 78

Key Government Ofﬁcials ..................................... 78

Contents (Continued)

Politics ........................................................................ 80

Political Parties ...................................................... 80

Foreign Relations ................................................... 81

International Organizations ................................... 84

Non-governmental Organizations .......................... 84

Corruption .............................................................. 85

ECONOMY ..................................................................... 85

Economic Statistics .................................................... 85

General Description ................................................... 86

Economic Aid ............................................................. 87

Banking Services ....................................................... 88

Natural Resources ....................................................... 89

Industry ....................................................................... 89

Mining ................................................................... 90

Manufacturing ....................................................... 90

Leather and Textiles ............................................... 91

Agriculture .................................................................. 92

Foreign Investment ...................................................... 93

Economic Outlook ...................................................... 93

THREAT .......................................................................... 94

Crime .......................................................................... 94

Travel Security ............................................................ 94

Illegal Drugs ................................................................ 95

Foreign Intelligence Services ...................................... 96

Threat to U.S. Personnel ............................................. 97

ARMED FORCES ........................................................... 97

Army ........................................................................... 97

Mission .................................................................. 97

Organization ........................................................... 98

Facilities ................................................................. 98

vivi

Contents (Continued)

Key Defense Personnel .......................................... 98

Personnel ................................................................ 99

Training .................................................................. 100

Capabilities ............................................................ 100

Disposition ............................................................. 100

Uniforms ................................................................ 102

Equipment .............................................................. 102

Air Force ..................................................................... 104

Mission .................................................................. 104

Personnel ................................................................ 104

Training .................................................................. 105

Capabilities ............................................................ 106

Equipment .............................................................. 106

Domestic Security Forces ........................................... 106

National Police ....................................................... 107

Weapons of Mass Destruction .................................... 108

APPENDICES

Equipment Recognition ................................................... A-1

Holidays ........................................................................... B-1

Language .......................................................................... C-1

Dangerous Plants and Animals ........................................ D-1

Mines ................................................................................ E-1

Border Delimitation ......................................................... F-1

vii

Contents (Continued)

ILLUSTRATIONS

Ethiopia ............................................................................ ix

National Flag .................................................................... 1

U.S. Embassy in Addis Ababa ......................................... 3

Northeast Africa ............................................................... 5

Disputed Land and Borders ............................................. 7

Ilemi Triangle ................................................................... 10

Topography ...................................................................... 13

Vegetation ........................................................................ 14

Women Shopping at Market ............................................ 17

Addis Ababa and Gonder Weather ................................... 19

Harer and Jima Weather ................................................... 20

Transportation Network ................................................... 24

Donkey Roaming the Streets ............................................ 25

Displaced Popluation ....................................................... 40

Population Density ........................................................... 41

Funeral Procession ........................................................... 44

Primary Somali Refugee Camps ...................................... 47

Ethiopian Woman and Child ............................................ 49

Ethiopian Children ........................................................... 50

Oromo Men Working in Southern Ethiopia ..................... 51

Ethiopian College Students .............................................. 53

Ethiopian School Children ............................................... 54

Mosque ............................................................................. 56

Ethiopian Orthodox Women ............................................ 57

Muslim Woman ................................................................ 58

Traditional Clothing ......................................................... 62

Stele to King Ezana, First Axum Monarch to

Embrace Christianity ..................................................... 72

viiiviii

Contents (Continued)

Haile Selassie Monument ................................................ 73

Prime Minister Meles Zenawi .......................................... 76

Administrative Regions .................................................... 79

Workers Processing Coffee Beans ................................... 87

Khat .................................................................................. 93

Army Ranks ..................................................................... 99

Army Uniform ................................................................. 100

Ethiopian Troops .............................................................. 101

Air Force Ranks ............................................................... 105

Ethiopian Militias ............................................................. 107

Indian

Ocean

Gulf of

Aden

Red

Sea

Lake

Turkana

Kibre

Mengist

Adwa

Nazret

Jijiga

Bonga

Dolo Bay

Dire Dawa

Gonder

Mekele

Nekemte

Dese

Debre

Markos

Gore

Yirga 'Alem

Asela

Harer

Goba

Arba Minch

Jima

KHARTOUM

DJIBOUTI

ADDIS

ABABA

MOGADISHU

ASMARA

SAUDI

ARABIA

YEMEN

SUDAN

UGANDA

KENYA

SOMALIA

DJIBOUTI

ERITREA

44°

36°

4°

12°

Boundary not defined and in dispute

Ethiopia

National Capital

Province Capital

City

Primary Road

Railroad

Province Border

International Border

Disputed Border

150

150 mi

100

200 km

Ethiopia

KEY FACTS

Ofﬁcial Country Name. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia.

Short Form. Ethiopia.

Local Long Form.

Ityop’iya Federalawi Demokrasiyawi Ripeblik.

Local Short Form. Ityop’iya.

Head of State. President Girma Woldegiorgis (since 8 October 2001).

Capital. Addis Ababa.

National Flag. Equal horizontal bands of green, yellow, and red;

a light blue disk in its center contains a yellow star with yellow

rays emanating outward.

Time Zone. UTC (formerly GMT) + 3 hours.

Telephone Country Code. 251.

Population. 85,237,338 (July 2009 est.)

Languages. Amarigna 32.7%, Oromigna 31.6%, Tigrigna 6.1%,

Somaligna 6%, Guaragigna 3.5%, Sidamigna 3.5%, Hadiyigna

1.7%, other 14.8%, English (major foreign language taught in

schools) (1994 census).

Currency. Birr (ETB).

National Flag

Credit/Debit Card Use. Credit cards have limited usage outside

Addis Ababa, and even in the capital, only major establishments

accept them. Most accept only VISA. ATMs are limited to major

bank branches and large hotels.

Calendar. Ethiopian calendar (also known as Ge’ez calendar).

Ethiopia uses the Julian solar calendar, which has its roots in an-

cient Egypt and consists of 12 months of 30 days each and a 13

month of 5 or 6 days every 4 years. The Ethiopian calendar runs 7

to 8 years behind the Gregorian (Western) calendar.

U.S. MISSION

U.S. Embassy

The U.S. Embassy is on Entoto Avenue in Addis Ababa.

Location Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Mailing Address Entoto Avenue, P.O. Box 1014, Addis Ababa

Telephone Number 251-011-517-40-00

Fax Number 251-011-517-40-01, 251-011-124-2401

E-mail Address pasaddis@state.gov

Internet Address http://ethiopia.usembassy.gov/service.html

Hours Monday through Thursday 0800 to 1130

and 1300 to 1530

U.S. Consulate

The Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy is on Entoto Avenue in

Addis Ababa.

Location Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Mailing Address Entoto Avenue, P.O. Box 1014, Addis Ababa

Telephone Number 251-011-124-2424

U.S. Embassy in Addis Ababa

Museum

Grand

Market

Area

Hospital

University

U.S.

Embassy

Grand

Palace

Development through

Cooperation Ave

Entoto Ave

Melekot

Haile

Wetherall

Belai Zeleke St

Patriot

Petros

Wave St

Wingate St

Eden

King George VI St

Russian St

Elizabeth

Queen

Tesema Abakemaw St

Gambia St

Ave

Desta Damtew Ave

Ave

Mekonnen

Aragay

Abebe

Sudan St

Field Marshal Smuts St

Africa Ave

To Airport

Jomo

Kenyatta

Ave

Zauditu St

Menelik II Ave

Itegue Taitu St

Colson St

Abune

Kurkume

River

Kechene

River

Bantyiketu River

Addis Ababa

Hospitals

Places of Interest

Educational

Institution

Grand Palace

Fax Number 251-011-124-2435

E-mail Address consaddis@state.gov, consacs@state.gov

Internet Address http://ethiopia.usembassy.gov/

Hours Monday through Thursday 0800 to 1130

and 1300 to 1530

GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE

Geography

Ethiopia is a landlocked country with boundaries from latitude

3N to 15N and from longitude 33E to 48E, enclosing an area of

1,127,127 square kilometers (435,186 square miles). Occupying

most of the Horn of Africa, the landmass of Ethiopia is roughly

three times the size of California. Ethiopia comprises two geo-

graphic areas: the cool highlands and the hot lowlands.

The Great Rift Valley divides the highlands into northern and

southern parts, and each has corresponding lowlands. The high-

lands in the northwest are rugged. Erosion has produced steep val-

leys that are in some places 1,600 meters (5,249 feet) deep and

many kilometers wide. In addition, the northwestern highlands

are subdivided by the valley of the Blue Nile.

The Great Rift Valley is the most signiﬁcant geographic region in

Ethiopia. The valley is a physical example of the giant fault line

that runs from the Jordan Valley in the Middle East to the Zambezi

River’s tributary in Mozambique. The fault line diagonally bisects

the center of Ethiopia and splits the Ethiopian Highlands in half.

In Ethiopia, the northernmost part of the rift is marked by the

Danakil Depression, which is 115 meters (377 feet) below sea level

and one of the hottest places on earth. Also referred to as the Afar

Depression (it is located in Afar Region), the Danakil Depression

is a triangle-shaped basin that stretches into Eritrea. Water from

Ethiopia ﬂows to the lowest point in Africa, Lake Asal in Djibouti.

Land Statistics

Total Area: 1,127,127 square kilometers

(435,186 square miles)

Water Area:

7,444 square kilometers (2,874 square miles)

Horn of Africa

Lake

Victoria

Mediterranean Sea

Red Sea

Persian Gulf

Gulf of Aden

Indian

Ocean

LEBANON

ISRAEL

JORDAN

IRAQ

KUWAIT

IRAN

SAUDI

ARABIA

U.A.E

QATAR

OMAN

YEMEN

EGYPT

LIBYA

CHAD

SUDAN

ETHIOPIA

ERITREA

DJIBOUTI

SOMALIA

KENYA

ADDIS

ABABA

UGANDA

TANZANIA

DEMOCRATIC

REPUBLIC OF

CONGO

CENTRAL

AFRICAN

REPUBLIC

RWANDA

BURUNDI

Northeast Africa

Coastline: 0 kilometers, 0 miles (landlocked)

Area Comparative:

Slightly less than twice the size of Texas

Central Coordinates: 0800N 03800E

Land Usage: Cultivated: 23%; Inhabited: N/A

Borders

Ethiopia has a total of 5,328 kilometers (3,311 miles) of continu-

ous land boundaries.

Direction Country Length

North Eritrea 912 km (567 mi)

East Djibouti 349 km (217 mi)

East Somalia 1,600 km (994 mi)

South Kenya 861 km (535 mi)

West Sudan 1,606 km (998 mi)

Total 5,328 km (3,311 mi)

Border Disputes

Eritrea

After Eritrea became independent in 1993, the government of

Ethiopia claimed the Eritrean areas of Badme and Zelambessa.

The border between Ethiopia and Eritrea had been determined

through treaties signed in the 1900s between the government of

Italy and Ethiopia’s former monarchy. The original maps were

written in three languages (Amharic, Italian, and English), and

the variation in the translations is the main point of contention

over the border. When translated into English, the maps written

in Italian and the maps written in Amharic use different terms for

the same features. These differences have led to confusion over

the physical border markers.

Most of the border between Eritrea and Ethiopia is indisput-

ably deﬁned by rivers and tributaries. Treaties between Italy and

Ethiopia deﬁne the eastern portion of the border as 60 kilome-

ters (37 miles) from the coast and parallel to the Djibouti border.

There have been border disputes concerning the small villages of

Badme in the west and Tsorena and Zelambessa in the center. The

Tekeze River (also known as the Setit) runs along the western por-

tion of the border between Ethiopia and Eritrea and splits into two

segments just south of Badme. One leg of the river sharply turns

south and ﬂows into Ethiopia; the other tributary ﬂows north until

it connects to the Mereb River. Eritrea claims the original bor-

der treaties agree on an imaginary straight line drawn from the

apex of the fork in the Tekeze, through Badme, north to the Mereb

River. In contrast, Ethiopia claims the border from the split along

Barka

Mereb

Tekeze

Red

Sea

Akordat

Mitsiwa

Barentu

Badme

Mendfera

Axoum

Adwa

Adigrat

Alitenia

Senafe

Adi Keyh

Shire

Tsorena

Yirga

Shiraro

ASMARA

ERITREA

Ethiopia

National Capital

City

International Border

Disputed Border

Disputed Land

Disputed Land and Borders

the northbound tributary. Eritrea’s claim places Badme directly on

the border, but under the control of Eritrea, while Ethiopia’s claim

places Badme nearly 4.8 kilometers (3 miles) inside the Ethiopia

border and under Ethiopia’s control.

Similarly, the two countries disagree over the border near the

villages of Tsorena and Zelambessa, speciﬁcally with regard

to names of local tributaries. Local tribes have different lan-

guages and, therefore, different names for the tributaries that

run between Ethiopia and Eritrea. This makes it unclear which

streams are intended by the Treaty of 1902 to form the border.

According to Eritrea, the village of Tsorena is in Eritrea, just

north of the border, and Zelambessa is in Ethiopia, just south of

the border. Ethiopia claims that both towns are directly on the

border. The difference is a matter of a few miles, but results in a

loss of land for Eritrea.

In the east, the dispute over the border town of Bure is based on

disagreement over distance-measuring methods. Around Bure,

the treaty deﬁnes the border provisionally as running “parallel to

and at a distance of 60 kilometers from the coast,” an ambiguous

deﬁnition as it does not dictate how the 60 kilometers is to be

measured. The treaty’s recommendation that the border be more

precisely delineated was never fulﬁlled. The countries disagree on

where to start measuring 60 kilometers (37 miles) from the coast.

The difference is merely a mile, but it is a loss of land for Eritrea.

In 1998, a 2½-year border war began between the two countries,

and although hostilities ended under UN auspices, the border

is still in dispute. The UN established a 25-kilometer (15-mile)

Temporary Security Zone on the Eritrea side of the border and

established a military contingent, the UN Mission to Ethiopia and

Eritrea, to monitor the border.

Since 2002, neither Eritrea nor Ethiopia has been cooperative with

the border demarcation. A virtual demarcation now in place lists

43 points (and their coordinates) that outline the internationally

recognized border. Ethiopia has refused to recognize the virtual

demarcation. Due to the continued disagreement, maps of the bor-

der may vary. The 43 points are listed in Appendix F.

The Illemi Triangle

The Ethiopia/Kenya border was delimited in 1963. The border be-

tween Ethiopia and Sudan was delimited in 1902. The combined bor-

ders between Ethiopia, Sudan, and Kenya make up the area known as

the Illemi Triangle. The area covers nearly 14,000 square kilometers

(5,405 square miles) and is administered by Kenya, but claimed by

all three countries. The dispute over the territory stems from a series

of poorly worded colonial-era treaties written in an attempt to pro-

vide freedom of movement for the nomadic Turkana people of the

border region. The three countries have been too involved with other

priorities in the past couple of decades to resolve the issue.

Sudan

Ethiopian and Sudanese border farmers have long contested farm-

land delineation, particularly in Quara and Metema. In a meet-

ing between the Sudan and Ethiopia governments in late 2008,

Ethiopia allegedly ceded land to Sudan. Ethiopia has neither con-

ﬁrmed nor denied reports of Sudanese troops displacing Ethiopian

farmers. News of the new boundary settlement along the 1,600-ki-

lometer (994-mile) border surprised and angered many Ethiopians.

Bodies of Water

Rivers

Ethiopia has nine major rivers, each of which originates in the

highlands and ﬂows through deep gorges into the surround-

ing lowlands. The Blue Nile (in Ethiopia called the Abbai or

Abay) is Ethiopia’s largest river and the largest contributor to the

Nile River Basin, which also includes the Baro-Akobo, Tekeze/

Atbara, and Mereb rivers. The Blue Nile and covers 33 percent

of the country, ﬂowing through the northern and central parts

westward into Sudan. The Awash River is part of the Great

Rift Valley basin and ﬂows east through the northern Great

Rift Valley. The river ends in saltwater lakes in the Danakil

Depression, the lowest point in Ethiopia (-125 meters [-410 feet]).

The southern Genale-Dawa and Wabe Shebelle Rivers are part

1950 Sudan Patrol Line

Lake

Turkana

1944 Blue Line

1938 Wakefield Line

1902 Maud Line

Kalemothia

Lokomarinyang

Kokuro

Todenyang

New

Township

Nakua

Kalam

SUDAN

ETHIOPIA

KENYA

Ilemi Triangle

City

International Border

Disputed Land

ADDIS

ABABA

SUDAN

KENYA

ETHIOPIA

Ilemi Triangle Red line, also known as the Wakeﬁeld Line, was es-

tablished by a joint Kenya-Sudan survey team in 1938. Blue line

was established in 1944 by the British Ofﬁce for Foreign Affairs.

Sudanese patrol line was established unilaterally by Sudan in 1950.

of the Shebelle-Juba Basin and ﬂow southeast into Somalia. The

Omo River empties into Lake Turkana.

Ethiopia’s large rivers and major tributaries are below 1,500

meters (4,921 feet). Most of Ethiopia’s other rivers are seasonal

with the highest levels occurring between June and August. In

the dry season, springs provide enough baseﬂow for small-

scale irrigation.

Lakes

Ethiopia has Great Rift Valley lakes, highland lakes, and crater

lakes. Most of Ethiopia’s largest lakes are in the Great Rift Valley.

Great Rift Valley lakes occupy the ﬂoor of the valley between the

northern and southern highlands. Lake Zway is the valley’s only

freshwater lake.

Major Great Rift Valley Lakes

Lake Area Elevation

Abaya 1,160 sq km (448 sq mi) 1,285 m (4,216 ft)

Chamo 551 sq km (213 sq mi) 1,235 m (4,052 ft)

Awasa 129 sq km (50 sq mi) 1,708 m (5,600 ft)

Zway 300 sq km (116 sq mi) 1,636 m (5,367 ft)

Abijata 205 sq km (79 sq mi) 1,573 m (5,160 ft)

Koka 250 sq km (97 sq mi) 1,590 m (5,217 ft)

Lake Tana (3,600 square kilometers [1,390 square miles] /1,788

meters [5,688 feet] elevation), the largest lake in Ethiopia, is lo-

cated in the northern highlands. It is the source of the Blue Nile

River and contains 37 islands. Heavy rainfall often causes water

levels in Lake Tana to rise signiﬁcantly, creating concerns about

overﬂow. Lakes Hayq, Ardebo, and Ashengie are major highland

lakes located near the edge of the western escarpment of the Great

Rift Valley at altitudes between 2,000 and 2,500 meters (6,562

and 8,202 feet). Lake Ashengie is the largest of the three, covering

25 square kilometers (9.6 square miles) with a maximum depth of

20 meters (66 feet).

Several crater lakes (Bishoftu, Aranguade, Hora, Kilotes, and

Pawlo) are located at the northwestern edge of the Great Rift

Valley near the town of Debre Zeit at an altitude of nearly 1,900

meters (6,234 feet). The lakes lie in volcanic explosion craters pro-

duced 7,000 years ago.

Topography

Ethiopia’s varied landforms include rugged highlands, isolated val-

leys, dense forests, and hot lowland plains. So rugged is Ethiopia’s

terrain that it has served as a defense against invading armies, iso-

lating the country from the rest of the world. Ethiopia consists of

four physiographic regions: the high plateaus, the central highlands,

the lowlands, and the Great Rift Valley.

The high plateaus of Ethiopia are formidable natural barriers that

have physically set the country apart from its neighbors. At el-

evations generally between 1,800 and 3,000 meters (5,905 and

9,842 feet), the Ethiopian Plateau, which comprises two-thirds

of the country, consists of the northwest and southeast highlands.

Both contain several mountain peaks approximately 4,500 meters

(14,763 feet) above sea level. Erosion has produced steep valleys

that are in some places 1,600 kilometers (5,246 feet) deep and sev-

eral kilometers wide. Rapid streams in these valleys are unsuitable

for navigation. The southeast highlands are mostly ﬂat and arid

(semi-desert). The northwest highlands are considerably more ex-

tensive and rugged; the valley of the Blue Nile divides these high-

lands into northern and southern sections.

The geologically active Great Rift Valley, which is susceptible to

earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, runs north and south separat-

ing the northwest and southeast highlands. It is dotted with lakes

and bounded on the east and west by escarpments. In the north,

the valley widens into the Awash River Basin, which contains the

Danakil Depression, a desert region 116 meters (380 feet) below

Indian

Ocean

Gulf of

Aden

Red

Sea

Lake

Turkana

Atbarah

Kibre

Mengist

Adwa

Nazret

Jijiga

Bonga

Dolo Bay

Dire

Dawa

Gonder

Mekele

Nekemte

Dese

Debre

Markos

Gore

Yirga 'Alem

Asela

Harer

Goba

Arba Minch

Jima

DJIBOUTI

ADDIS

ABABA

MOGADISHU

ASMARA

SAUDI

ARABIA

SAUDI

ARABIA

YEMENYEMEN

SUDANSUDAN

UGANDAUGANDA

KENYAKENYA

SOMALIASOMALIA

DJIBOUTIDJIBOUTI

ERITREAERITREA

44°

36°

4°

12°

Boundary not defined and in Dispute

5,000+

4,000-5,000

3,000-4,000

2,000-3,000

1,000-2,000

500-1,000

200-500

0-200

Elevation in Meters

Ethiopia

National Capital

Province Capital

City

International Border

Disputed Border

150

150 mi

100

200 km

Topography

sea level that runs parallel to the Red Sea and consists of salt lakes

and a major sinkhole, called the Kobar Sink.

Vegetation

The ﬂora of Ethiopia varies with elevation and climate. In the low-

lands, vegetation is often dense and tropical, except in Danakil

Omo

Indian

Ocean

Gulf of

Aden

Red

Sea

Lake

Turkana

Kibre

Mengist

Adwa

Jijiga

Bonga

Dolo

Bay

Dire

Dawa

Gonder

Mekele

Nekemte

Dese

Debre

Markos

Gore

Yirga

'Alem

Asela

Harer

Goba

Arba Minch

Jima

KHARTOUM

DJIBOUTI

ADDIS

ABABA

MOGADISHU

ASMARA

SAUDI

ARABIA

YEMEN

SUDAN

UGANDA

KENYA

SOMALIA

DJIBOUTI

ERITREA

44°

36°

4°

12°

Boundary not defined and in dispute

Ethiopia

National Capital

City

International boundary

Steppe and desert

Tropical brush

Savanna

Upland grassland

Deciduous woodland

Tropical highland forest

150

150 mi

100

200 km

Vegetation

and the southeastern plains where only indigenous brush and

acacia trees live. There are thickly wooded hillsides, particularly

through the central highland elevations. In the highlands, bushes

and trees are generally scattered in small clusters.

Cross-country Movement

Much of Ethiopia is accessible only by air. Ethiopia’s rugged ter-

rain hinders most cross-country travel, even with four-wheel-drive

vehicles. Landmines also present signiﬁcant danger. The center

of the country is covered by mountains and high plateaus that are

divided by deep gorges and steep valleys. Changes in elevation

can be from hundreds to thousands of feet. Most of the primary

roads run along the Great Rift Valley from northeast to southwest.

Ethiopia’s road development has increased in the past decade. Still,

driving four-wheel-drive vehicles with heavy-duty suspension is

recommended. Many of the roads are simply areas that cut across

the hard desert path. During periods of heavy rain, these roads be-

come impassable. The road system radiates in all directions from

the capital, Addis Ababa.

Urban Geography

Ethiopia’s urban centers are characterized by sprawling slums and

unsanitary conditions. The urban poor live in cramped kebeles

(urban villages) consisting of dilapidated shelters made of plas-

tered wooden walls and tin roofs. Fewer than half of all house-

holds in 10 current regional capitals have access to potable water

or access to latrines. Less than two-thirds of households in these

areas have solid waste collection service.

The capital city of Addis Ababa is surrounded by smaller cities on

the rail line and along major roads. The city is divided by eleva-

tion into two parts. The oldest, northern portion of the city, called

Arada, is centrally located. Arada has a public square, several

small markets, and Addis Ababa University. The second, more

contemporary part is Lower Addis Ababa, the commercial dis-

trict. It has hotels, government buildings, restaurants, shops, mu-

seums, a soccer stadium, and a railroad station. It is also the main

European and American business district.

Wealthy residential areas in Addis Ababa are southeast of the city

near Bole International Airport and southwest of the city near

Lideta Airport. The Bole International Airport is at the south-

eastern end of Bole Road. The most impoverished areas in Addis

Ababa are near the central business district. There are slums and

shantytowns in the north and northwest at Addis Ketema.

Addis Ababa, located below the Entotto Mountains, covers 222

kilometers (137 miles) and is the largest and most populated city

in Ethiopia (2.25 million). The mix of towering mountains and the

deep chasms they create adds to the diversity of the climate and

vegetation in the area north of Addis Ababa.

Addis Ababa’s architecture is a mix of old buildings in the Italian

style, modern ofﬁces and apartments, Western-style villas, and

mud-walled tin-roof dwellings. Streets are built on a grid pattern

running north-south and east-west. Seven diagonal roads con-

nect to seven circular plazas on the city’s transportation network.

Ethiopia’s government renamed all the streets in Addis Ababa in

2005. Churchill Avenue, the main north-south corridor in Addis

Ababa, was renamed Gambia Street. Gambia Street connects

Arada to the southern portion of Addis Ababa. The roads in Addis

Ababa are busiest at dusk, when cattle and goats are driven from

ﬁelds to their owners’ homes in the city.

Merkato, often called the Grand Market Area, is east of Arada and

is potentially the largest market in Africa. Merkato is busiest on

Saturdays, when farmers, merchants, and tourists from all over the

country are most likely to be there. Most of the foreign embassies,

including the U.S. Embassy, are located northeast of Arada along

Entoto Avenue.

Dire Dawa is 20 kilometers (12 miles) off the road to Harer in

eastern Ethiopia. From Djibouti, Dire Dawa is a major city along

the route to Addis Ababa. The city has a strong French inﬂuence

due to its proximity to the former French colony of Djibouti. The

wide boulevards and the infrastructure in Dire Dawa were mod-

eled after large French cities, which makes Dire Dawa very differ-

ent from all other cities in Ethiopia.

Climate

Ethiopia’s temperatures range from equatorial desert to cool

steppe. In Ethiopia, the southwest receives the most rainfall, with

Women Shopping at Market

an average annual rainfall of 2,200 millimeters (87 inches). The

amount of rainfall decreases to less than 200 millimeters (8 inch-

es) throughout the Danakil Depression, the lower Awash River

Basin, and eastern Ogaden. Highland plateaus, which cover more

than half of Ethiopia, are surrounded by arid and semi-arid low-

lands. The highlands receive large amounts of rain and serve as

the watershed for the surrounding lowlands.

Ethiopia has three general climatic zones: tropical in the south

and southwest, cold to temperate in the highlands, and arid to

semi-arid in the northeastern and southeastern lowlands.

■ The tropical zone, below 1,800 meters (5,905 feet), has an av-

erage annual temperature of 27°C (81°F) and an average an-

nual rainfall of less than 500 millimeters (19.7 inches).

■ The subtropical zone, which includes most of the highland

plateau and lies between 1,800 and 2,400 meters (5,905

and 7,874 feet) above sea level, has an average tempera-

ture of 22°C (72°F) and an annual rainfall ranging from

500 to 1,500 millimeters (19.7 to 59 inches).

■ Above 2,400 meters (7,874 feet) is a temperate zone with an

average temperature of 16°C (61°F) and an annual rainfall be-

tween 1,200 and 1,800 millimeters (47 and 71 inches). The

main rainy season occurs from mid-June to September, fol-

lowed by a dry season that may be interrupted in February or

March by a short rainy season.

■ The eastern lowlands are much drier with a hot, semi-arid

climate. Rainfall occurs during April, May, July, and August,

and the hottest months are February and March.

Nighttime temperatures may fall to near or below freezing in the

mountains, particularly during the dry season. Occasionally, snow

may fall on the highest peaks, but there are no permanent snowﬁelds.

TEMPERATURE

PRECIPITATION

ADDIS ABABA

ELEVATION: 7,727 FT

GONDER

ELEVATION: 6,513 FT

Extreme High

Average High

Average Low

Extreme Low

Extreme High

Average High

Average Low

Extreme Low

Snow

Rain

Snow

Rain

0º

20º

40º

60º

80º

100º

DNOSAJJMAMFJ

0º

20º

40º

60º

80º

100º

DNOSAJJMAMFJ

Addis Ababa and Gonder Weather

TEMPERATURE

PRECIPITATION

HARER

ELEVATION: 6,155 FT

JIMA

ELEVATION: 5,499 FT

Extreme High

Average High

Average Low

Extreme Low

Extreme High

Average High

Average Low

Extreme Low

Snow

Rain

Snow

Rain

0º

20º

40º

60º

80º

100º

DNOSAJJMAMFJ

0º

20º

40º

60º

80º

100º

DNOSAJJMAMFJ

Harer and Jima Weather

Precipitation

In western Ethiopia, it can rain anytime between April and

September, but the heaviest rains fall during July and August.

Eastern Ethiopia has a short wet period from April to May and

heavy rains in July and August. The Great Rift Valley has an aver-

age annual rainfall of 600 millimeters (23.6 inches); half this rain-

fall occurs between July and September. The western foothills of

the rift escarpment experience an average annual rainfall of 800

to 1,000 millimeters (31.5 to 39.4 inches).

Monsoon winds blow west to southwest during the rainy season

(winds blow northeast during the dry season). More than 1,000

millimeters (40 inches) of rain falls in the highlands, and as much

as 1,500 to 2,000 millimeters (60 to 80 inches) of rain falls in

the western parts of the country. Thunderstorms are frequent in

the western parts of the country, occurring almost daily during

the rainy season; throughout the region, there are more than 100

thunderstorms a year.

Phenomena

Intense rainfall causes ﬂooding along the Awash River and in the

lower Baro-Akobo and Wabe-Shebelle river basins, damaging crops

and infrastructure. Dikes have been built as a temporary measure.

Droughts are common and are occurring with increasing frequen-

cy. Ethiopia has had 30 major droughts in the past 9 centuries; 13

were severe, affecting hundreds of thousands of people.

Environment

Ethiopia’s long history of agricultural productivity has ﬂourished

from fertile, volcanic soils. However, drought, overgrazing, defor-

estation, and poor agricultural practices have begun to erode the

soil. Despite the erosion, agriculture accounts for 40 percent of

Ethiopia’s GDP and 90 percent of its export earnings; the coun-

try’s chief export is coffee.

Major environmental issues in Ethiopia are deforestation, over-

grazing, soil erosion, desertiﬁcation, water pollution, and urban air

pollution. In the central highlands, population growth, increased

crop cultivation, and increased livestock grazing cause deforesta-

tion and soil erosion. In the south and southwest, deforestation is

the result of resettlement, commercial farming, and ﬁre. Despite

repeated soil and water conservation campaigns, signiﬁcant

amounts of productive soil are lost every year to water and wind

erosion. As Ethiopia’s population increases, the nation relies more

on its forests for fuel, hunting, agriculture, and housing construc-

tion, all of which accelerates deforestation.

Throughout Ethiopia, wetlands are used for livestock grazing,

particularly during the dry season. In recent decades there has

been a noticeable change in the wetland’s characteristics, caused

by livestock increases, fodder shortages, and expanding agricul-

ture demands. Some wetlands have been transformed into rough

grazing land.

Ethiopia’s poor industrial and domestic waste disposal policies

are causing water pollution in urban centers such as Addis Ababa,

Mojoo, and Debre Zeit. Toxic substances from sugar, textile, and

tannery factories are dumped into rivers. Organic waste also con-

taminates Ethiopia’s water.

Air quality has sharply declined in Addis Ababa and other major

urban centers in Ethiopia because of an increase in motor vehicle

use. Ethiopia developed the Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia

(CSE) in 1989 and began seriously addressing environmental

problems in the early 1990s, implementing The Environmental

Policy of Ethiopia in 1997.

The area thought to be highest in mineral potential is in the west

and southwest, particularly in Wollega, Illubabor, and Kaffa; how-

ever, the area is largely inaccessible because much of it is cov-

ered by rain forest. Exploration for petroleum was carried out with

some success in the Bale region.

Hydroelectric power has great potential for the generation of elec-

tricity in Ethiopia. Several plants are already in operation along

the Awash River. Developers are planning to put additional sites

with both geothermal power provision and irrigation potential

along the Blue Nile River.

INFRASTRUCTURE

Transportation

General Description

Ethiopia’s transportation sector is deﬁcient: many towns lack ac-

cess to all-weather roads; its commercial rail service infrastruc-

ture is negligible; and most of its airﬁelds have unpaved runways

that are vulnerable to weather damage. Ethiopia has no direct

access to maritime port facilities and must rely on Djibouti and

Somalia port facilities to handle its vessel trafﬁc as Eritrea ports

are not open to Ethiopia. Public transportation is unpredictable

and dangerous.

Roads

Ethiopia has 42,429 kilometers (26,364 miles) of roads, of which

5,515 kilometers (3,427 miles) are paved. As of 2007, 64 percent of

asphalt roads were in good condition. More than half the country’s

gravel and rural roads are in poor condition. On average, a villager

must travel 13 kilometers (8 miles) to reach an all-weather road.

The Ethiopia Roads Authority (ERA) is working to expand, reha-

bilitate, and upgrade road conditions under Phase III of the Road

Sector Development Program. ERA expects the road network to

measure 135,554 kilometers (84,230 miles) upon completion.

During the rainy season (June to September), roads may become

impassable due to ﬂooding. Ethiopia experiences numerous earth-

quakes and volcanic eruptions, some of which may affect road

Indian

Ocean

Gulf of

Aden

Red

Sea

Lake

Turkana

Mitsiwa

Assab

Kibre

Mengist

Adwa

Nazret

Jijiga

Bonga

Dolo Bay

Dire Dawa

Gonder

Mekele

Nekemte

Dese

Debre

Markos

Gore

Yirga 'Alem

Asela

Harer

Goba

Arba

Minch

Jima

KHARTOUM

DJIBOUTI

ADDIS

ABABA

MOGADISHU

SANAA

ASMARA

SAUDI

ARABIA

YEMEN

SUDAN

UGANDA

KENYA

SOMALIA

DJIBOUTI

ERITREA

Boundary not defined and in Dispute

Ethiopia

National Capital

Province Capital

City

Primary Road

Railroad

Province Border

International Border

Disputed Border

150

150 mi

50 100

100

200 km

Transportation Network

travel. Roads are economically vital to counter the lack of sufﬁ-

cient rail lines and domestic seaports. The road network transports

95 percent of passenger and freight trafﬁc.

Pedestrians tend to cross the street at inappropriate places or walk

along roads, paying no attention to trafﬁc. Drivers should watch

for stray livestock, wild animals, potholes, unlit vehicles, and false

checkpoints. Outlying roads do not have lanes, road markings, or

safety lights; road conditions are poor.

Driving is dangerous outside urban areas. Aggressive driving,

armed robbery, banditry, carjacking, and speeding are serious

problems. Tactics used by armed groups and terrorists include using

false checkpoints, using explosive devices, and ambushing vehicles.

Donkey Roaming the Streets

Driving along the roads near Ethiopia’s border regions with Eritrea,

Kenya, Somalia, and Sudan is particularly dangerous, as the threat

potential may be higher in these locations than it is elsewhere.

Landmines may pose a danger for drivers traveling on dirt roads

in remote areas, particularly along the security zone separating

Eritrea and Ethiopia. Incidents generally involve newly laid mines

on recently cleared roads.

Vehicles travel on the right side of the road. Stuck and abandoned

vehicles are commonplace during the rainy season. In many ar-

eas, roads may be passable only with four-wheel-drive vehicles.

Accident rates are high.

Taxis and car hire services are available in urban areas. Blue

and white shared taxis offer cheaper fares; neither use meters.

Instead, fares are negotiated; passengers should agree on a price

before departing. Private and public bus service is available

throughout Ethiopia.

Rail

Ethiopia has one railroad, which uses narrow gauge (1 meter [3.2

feet]) line. It is 681 kilometers (423 miles) long and connects

Addis Ababa with the port of Djibouti. Ethiopia and Djibouti own

and operate the line, which is in bad condition. Hoping to reduce

its reliance on Djibouti, Ethiopia reached an agreement with

Sudan in 2001 to build a rail link to Port Sudan (1936N 03714E).

The project will require a substantial amount of time and money

(US$1.5 billion) to complete.

Travelers should not travel by rail, as terrorists sabotage, bomb,

and derail trains. Train schedules are unreliable and delays are

frequent. Rail bridges between Dire Dawa and Djibouti are also

in need of repair.

Between 700,000 and 800,000 passengers and up to 250,000

tonnes (275,577 tons) of freight transit the railroad per year. The

rail line is not important to Ethiopia’s economy, as only a minor

portion of passenger and freight trafﬁc uses the system. Light-rail

or subway services are not available.

Air

Primary Airfields

Airport

Name Coordinates Elevation

Runway

Length x

Width

meters (feet) Remarks

Arba Mingh 0602N 03735E 1,187 m

(3,894 ft)

2,795 x 47

(9,170 x 154)

Asphalt

Asosa 1001N 03435E 1,561 m

(5,121 ft)

1,950 x 46

(6,398 x 151)

Asphalt

Axum 1408N 03846E 2,108 m

(6,916 ft)

2,400 x 45

(7,874 x 148)

Asphalt

Bahir Dar 1136N 03719E 1,821 m

(5,974 ft)

3,000 x 61

(9,843 x 200)

Concrete, as-

phalt, and bi-

tumen-bound

crushed rock

Bole Intl 0858N 03847E 2,334 m

(7,657 ft)

3,800 x 45

(12,467 x 148)

Asphalt

3,700 x 45

(12,139 x 148)

Asphalt

Dire Dawa

Intl (joint

civil and

military)

0937N 04151E 1,167 m

(3,829 ft)

2,679 x 45

(8,789 x 148)

Asphalt

Airport

Name Coordinates Elevation

Runway

Length x

Width

meters (feet) Remarks

Gambella 0807N 03433E 540 m

(1,772 ft)

2,514 x 45

(8,248 x 148)

Concrete

Gode 0556N 04334E 254 m

(833 ft)

2,288 x 35

(7,507 x 115)

Concrete, as-

phalt, and bi-

tumen-bound

crushed rock

Gonder 1231N 03726E 1,994 m

(6,542 ft)

2,780 x 45

(9,121 x 148)

Asphalt

Jima 0739N 03648E 1,703 m

(5,587 ft)

2,000 x 50

(6,562 x 164)

Asphalt

Lalibella 1158N 03858E 1,958 m

(6,424 ft)

2,435 x 53

(7,989 x 174)

Asphalt

Lideta

(military)

0900N 03843E 2,362 m

(7,749 ft)

1,170 x 20

(3,389 x 66)

Asphalt

Mekale 1328N 03932E 2,257 m

(7,405 ft)

3,604 x 43

(11,824 x 141)

Asphalt

International airlines with regular service to Addis Ababa include

Air France, British Airways, Djibouti Airlines, Kenya Airways,

and Lufthansa. Ethiopia Airlines provides domestic and interna-

tional ﬂights. Its domestic routes cover all the main population

centers. International direct routes cover many African, Asian,

European, and Middle Eastern cities. Washington, DC, is Ethiopia

Airlines’ only U.S. destination

Ethiopia has 84 airﬁelds, 15 of which were paved as of 2007.

Three of the paved runways are longer than 3,047 meters

(10,000 feet); 21 unpaved runways are shorter than 914 meters

(3,000 feet)

Aircraft attempting to land on or take off from many of these run-

ways frequently have to navigate around obstacles on runways,

terrain features, birds, livestock, and wildlife.

The Ethiopia Civil Aviation Authority is responsible for establishing air

transportation regulations. The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration

has assessed Ethiopia’s Civil Aviation Authority as being compliant

(Category 1) with International Civil Aviation Organization’s safety

standards. The Ethiopian Customs Authority is responsible for pro-

tecting air travel by screening cargo, baggage, and travelers.

Maritime

Primary Ports

Port Name,

Coord.

Berthing

Anchor

Depth

Pier Depth Remarks

Djibouti

(Djibouti),

1136N 04308E

Vessels more

than 152 m

(500 ft) in

length

6.4–7.6 m

(21–25 ft)

6.4–7.6 m

(21–25 ft)

Channel

depth:

9.4–10.7 m

(31–35 ft)

Oil terminal:

9.4–10.7 m

(31–35 ft)

Berbera

(Somalia),

1027N 04501E

Vessels more

than 152 m

(500 ft) in

length

11–12.2 m

(36–40 ft)

9.4–10.7 m

(31–35 ft)

Channel

depth:

9.4–10.7 m

(31–35 ft)

Oil terminal:

7.9–9.1 m

(26–30 ft)

Sudan

(Sudan)

1936N 03714E

Vessels more

than 152 m

(500 ft) in

length

20.1–21.3 m

(66–70 ft)

7.9–9.1 m

(26–30 ft)

Channel

depth:

23.2+ m

(76+ ft)

Oil terminal:

9.4–10.7 m

(31–35 ft)

Ethiopia has no signiﬁcant navigable waterways; most rivers are

seasonal; the water levels are highest between June and August.

Boulders, small islands, and other obstacles make navigating riv-

ers extremely difﬁcult, even with light watercraft.

Most large lakes are navigable by light watercraft. Lake Shala is

the deepest, at 226 meters (741 feet).

Ethiopia’s largest lake, Lake Tana, contains 37 islands. Ferry

services to these islands is available, and the lake is navigable

year-round

Ethiopia had a ﬂeet of nine merchant vessels as of December 2008:

one roll-on/roll-off vessel and eight cargo ships. Dugout canoes,

inﬂatable rafts, kayaks, and tankwa (papyrus boats) are common

sights in navigable lakes and rivers.

Utilities

Electricity

Ethiopia has one of the world’s lowest rates of access to modern en-

ergy technology, and relies primarily on wood, crops, and animal

waste to supply its energy needs. According to the World Bank,

12 percent of Ethiopians have access to electricity (2 percent of

rural residents and 86 percent of urban residents). Hydropower is

the backbone of the energy sector, and as such, energy is in short

supply during droughts.

Eight hydropower dams account for more than 85 percent of

Ethiopia’s 767 megawatts of grid-based generating capacity. Six

of the eight plants were built prior to 1988; the oldest was built

in 1964. Five additional hydropower sites with a combined ca-

pacity of 3,125 megawatts are under construction. Two of those

sites, Tekeze (300 megawatts) and Gilgel Gibe II (480 mega-

watts), are expected to double the national capacity. The aim is

to increase capacity to 9,000 megawatts by 2018, with surplus

power exported to neighboring Kenya, Djibouti, and Sudan.

Another goal is to improve the efﬁciency of existing energy re-

sources, since energy loss is 19.5 percent compared to the inter-

national average of 13.5 percent.

Electricity in Ethiopia is delivered in 220 to 240 or 110 volts

(depending on location), alternating at 50 cycles per second.

Outlets accept three types of plugs: type D with three round

pins, type J with three round pins (one offset), and type L with

three parallel pins.

Water

Ethiopia has one of the lowest water supply and sanitation cover-

age levels in the world. Budget resources combined with other

aid have not been sufﬁcient to improve coverage, and user fees

for service are often too low to provide for adequate maintenance

of facilities.

Ethiopia’s water resources are unevenly distributed. More than 80

percent of Ethiopia’s surface water comes from one of the four

river basins in the west and southwest regions: (Abay [Blue Nile],

Tekeze, Baro-Akobo, and Omo-Gibe). River basins in the east and

central regions make up the remainder of Ethiopia’s surface water,

but this region has 60 percent of the nation’s population. Coverage

reached 52.5 percent in 2007 (82 percent urban and 46.5 percent

rural), up from less than 30 percent in 2002.

Many people travel long distances to search for water from bore-

holes, springs, ponds, streams, and rivers. Water from rivers and

other undeveloped sources is often unsafe and unreliable. Even

in urban centers, the supply and quality of water is inadequate

and unreliable.

Sanitation

Ethiopia’s sanitation infrastructure is nearly nonexistent.

According to the World Health Organization, 8 percent of the ru-

ral population has access to improved sanitation coverage, 2 per-

cent has access to shared coverage, 16 percent has access to unim-

proved coverage, and 74 percent has no coverage, leaving people

to use open areas (open defecation). Urban residents fare better at

27 percent improved, 35 percent shared, 27 percent unimproved,

and 11 percent no coverage.

The quality of facilities (mostly latrines) is poor. More than 50

percent are considered structurally unsafe, and 50 percent are un-

hygienic. Public sanitation services such as public toilet facilities,

sludge (seepage) collection, and related environmental health ser-

vices are generally inadequate and do not meet demands. Addis

Ababa is the only town with a sewerage system, but it is small.

Communication

Ethiopia’s government controls the communication assets in

Ethiopia. All television and radio stations are state owned, but two

private commercial radio stations have run broadcast tests, as of

late 2007. Communication assets include radio, television, internet,

satellite, print publications, ﬁxed and mobile telephones, and post

ofﬁces. Microwave radio; open-wire; HF, VHF, UHF radio commu-

nication services; and satellite contribute to the domestic telecom-

munications system. The ﬁxed-line telephone system is adequate,

but travelers should expect service interruptions. Cellular services

are expanding, but they are currently only available in urban centers

Ethiopia’s laws provide for freedom of expression and press, but

government actions against individuals, organizations, and me-

dia limit this freedom. All media outlets practice self-censorship

to avoid government intimidation, ﬁnes, conﬁnement, or forced

closure. Foreign and private media is also pressured to practice

self-censorship. Such actions of pressure include harassment,

threats, physical abuse, prosecution, and restricting journalists’

access to information. The government also monitors internet ac-

tivities, particularly those of journalists, editors, and publishers.

Ethiopia’s Ministry of Information occasionally denies press ac-

creditations to journalists.

Radio

Ethiopia has nine radio stations: eight AM stations and one short-

wave (SW) station (as of 2005). Radio Ethiopia, Radio Fana, and

Voice of Tigray Revolution are three of Ethiopia’s main AM, FM,

and SW radio stations. Broadcast languages include Oromigna

(Afan Oromo), Afar, Amharic (Amarigna), Arabic, English,

French, Somali (Somaligna), and Tigrigna. Sheger Radio and

ZAMI are private commercial radio stations. Sheger broadcasts

music and entertainment programs, while ZAMI broadcasts news

and talk shows.

Voice of America (VOA), BBC World Service Radio, and Radio

France Internationale (RFI) are international broadcasts avail-

able through shortwave radio. VOA broadcasts many programs

in Oromigna, Amharic, English, and Tigrigna. A variety of pro-

grams and stations are also available in English on BBC Radio.

RFI broadcasts programs in English and French through SW radio

and satellite. Frequencies vary according to the time of day.

Radio is a very signiﬁcant medium because much of the popu-

lation is illiterate and/or has limited access to electricity, or is

unable to afford television. Ethiopia has 184 radios per 1,000 in-

habitants (2001)

Major Stations Programming

Radio Ethiopia (684 AM, Metu; 855

AM, Harer; 873 AM, 990 AM, 97.1

FM, Addis Ababa)

N/A

Radio Fana (1080 AM, 98.1 FM, 6110

SW, 6940 SW, 7210 SW, Addis Ababa,

Afar, Oromia, Somali)

Entertainment, infor-

mation, news, talk

BBC Radio (6005 SW, 7375 SW, 9410

SW, 9750 SW, 11945 SW, 12035 SW,

15420 SW, 17640 SW, 21470 SW)

Business news,

entertainment, music,

news, sports, talk

Radio France Internationale (7315

SW, 9790 SW, 9805 SW, 11700 SW,

11995 SW, 13680 SW, 15605 SW,

21620 SW)

Information, music,

news, sports

Voice of America (9320 SW, 9485 SW,

9860 SW, 11520 SW, 11675 SW, 11905

SW, 13870 SW)

Entertainment, music,

news, sports, talk

Voice of Tigray Revolution (5950 SW,

5980 SW, 6170 SW, 9650 SW)

N/A

Television

Ethiopian Television (ETV) is the only domestic television net-

work; it is state owned.

Broadcasts are in Amharic, English, and

other local languages. Programs offered include ﬁlms, documen-

taries, talk shows, news, and music TV. ETV Channel 1 broad-

casts 8 hours per day Monday through Friday and more than 16

hours on weekends. ETV Channel 2 is Ethiopia’s only regional

free-to-air channel; it is located in Addis Ababa.

Satellite television from South Africa and from ArabSat satel-

lite service providers is available, but only the elite can afford

it. Many Ethiopians cannot even afford to purchase a television.

Satellite service is available by subscription. BBC World, CNN,

MTV, SABC, and Sky TV are satellite channels. Four percent of

Ethiopian households own a television, according to the World

Bank (as of 2006).

Primary Television Stations Location

ETV, Channel 1 National

ETV, Channel 2 Addis Ababa

Telecommunication

Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation (ETC), a tele-

communications monopoly, is a state-owned company offer-

ing ﬁxed and wireless telephone services. ETC also offers in-

ternet service through its internet service provider, Ethiopian

Telecommunications Agency (ETA). The current backbone infra-

structure uses microwave, open-wire, radio, and VSAT technology.

The telephone system is inadequate. Ethiopia has one of the lowest

teledensities in Africa. One percent of Ethiopians subscribe to land-

line telephone services, and less than 2 percent use mobile phones.

ETC’s goal is to expand the telecommunications infrastructure to

rural areas through digital, satellite, wireless, and ﬁber-optic tech-

nologies. Major obstacles to telecommunication expansion in rural

areas are high initial costs, geography, and remoteness. Telephone

service interruptions are common, particularly during the rainy sea-

son. Pay phones are available in urban centers.

ETC also offers cellular phone service using GSM technology. SMS

(text messaging) is available. ETC has roaming agreements with

numerous international companies in Africa, the Americas, Asia,

Europe, and the Paciﬁc. Other roaming partners include U.S. ser-

vice providers AT&T and T-Mobile USA. Network coverage is

available in Ethiopia’s large urban centers, but is limited or absent

elsewhere. Satellite phones are more reliable, but they are expensive.

Ethiopia Telecommunication Statistics

Total telephone subscribers (2007) 2,088,600

Telephone subscribers per 100 inhabitants 2.5

Main telephone lines 880,100

Main telephone lines per 100 inhabitants 1

Mobile users 1,208,500

Internet

Internet access is available mainly in Addis Ababa, but is also avail-

able elsewhere. Connectivity is slow and disruptions are frequent.

The public accesses the internet at internet cafes, public libraries,

schools, and universities. Internet access is available through one

internet service provider: the state-owned company ETC.

Technologies such as VSAT, dial-up, and DSL are available; dedi-

cated internet connections are not available. Satellite internet is

not available for personal use. A Chinese telecom company is

helping ETC upgrade its network with 3G technologies, which

will include wireless internet capabilities.

ETC and the ETA control all access to the internet. People can

generally express their views through the internet, but there are

strict limitations. There are reports that the government monitors

and blocks political opposition websites, diaspora group activity,

news sources, domestic online magazines, human rights group

activity, and websites that criticize the government. Popular blog-

ging websites are also blocked. The ETA requires internet cafes

to record the personal information of individual users along with

web logs; lists go to law enforcement.

Ethiopia Internet Statistics

Total Internet hosts (2008) 128

Hosts per 10,000 inhabitants (2008) <1

Users (2007) 290,850

Users per 100 inhabitants (2007) 0.35

Total number of personal computers (PCs) (2007) 531,840

PCs per 100 inhabitants (2007) 0.64

Internet broadband per 100 inhabitants (2007) 0

Newspapers and Magazines

Major English-language daily newspapers are Addis Zemen, the

Daily Monitor, and the Ethiopian Herald. Addis Zemen and the

Ethiopian Herald are state-owned newspapers; Addis Admass,

Addis Fortune, Addis Tribune, Capital, and the Daily Monitor are

privately owned. Addis Fortune and Capital are business news-

papers. Helm is a quarterly English-language Ethiopian publi-

cation focusing on art, culture, entertainment, and fashion. The

Sub-Saharan Informer is a weekly English-language Pan-African

newspaper that is available in Ethiopia.

The International Herald Tribune, Newsweek, and Time are inter-

national publications that are available in Addis Ababa. Other inter-

national publications include English- and French-language news-

papers that are available at hotels and newsstands. International

publications are available. Finding newspapers and other publica-

tions printed in English outside Addis Ababa may be difﬁcult be-

cause of the low literacy rate and the remoteness of many areas.

Publication Politics Lang. Freq. Web Address

Addis Admass N/A Amharic Weekly www.addisadmass.com

Addis Fortune N/A English Weekly www.addisfortune.com

Publication Politics Lang. Freq. Web Address

Addis Tribune N/A English Weekly www.addistribune.com

Addis Zemen Pro-govt Amharic Daily N/A

Capital N/A English Weekly www.capitalethiopia.com

The Daily

Monitor

N/A English Daily N/A

The Ethiopian

Herald

Pro-govt English Daily N/A

The Reporter N/A Amharic Biweekly

www.ethiopianreporter.com

(Amharic version)

English en.ethiopianreporter.com

(English version)

Postal Service

The ofﬁcial name of the postal service is Ethiopian Postal Service.

The postal service provides postbox rentals, courier services, and

money orders. Ethiopia had 1,387 post ofﬁces as of 2006. Fewer

than 1 percent of the population has home delivery. In urban areas,

mail delivery and collection occurs twice per day; it averages ﬁve

times per week in rural areas. The postal system is reliable. DHL,

EMS, and TNT provide international delivery services; FedEx

and UPS contract services through domestic couriers.

Satellites

Ethiopia has access to three Intelsat satellite earth stations: one

in the Atlantic Ocean and two in the Paciﬁc Ocean. The satellite

systems are for voice communications, radio, internet, and televi-

sion broadcasts. Most of Ethiopia is rural and has no telephone

landlines. There are no connections to submarine cables because

Ethiopia is landlocked. Ethiopia’s geography and the remoteness

of many areas are also obstacles for laying underground cables.

CULTURE

Statistics

Population 85,237,338 (July 2009 est.)

Population growth rate 3.21% (2009 est.)

Birth rate 43.66 births/1,000 population (2009

est.)

Death rate 11.55 deaths/1,000 population (July

2009 est.)

Net migration rate -0.02 migrant(s)/1,000 population

(2009 est.)

Life expectancy at birth Total population: 55.41 years

Male: 52.92 years

Female: 57.97 years (2009 est.)

Population age structure 0 to 14 years: 46.1%

15 to 64 years: 51.2%

65 years and older: 2.7% (2009 est.)

Date of the last census A population and housing census was

conducted in 2007

Population Patterns

Ethiopia is predominantly rural. According to the 2007 census, 84

percent of Ethiopia’s population lives in rural areas. Nearly 37 per-

cent (27.1 million) of the population lives in the regions of Oromia,

which is the largest state in Ethiopia. The next largest populations

are in the states of Amhara with 23 percent (17.2 million); Southern

Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region (SNNP) with 20 per-

cent (15 million); Somali 6 percent (4.4 million); and Tigray with

5.8 percent (4.3 million). Addis Ababa, the capital city, accounts

for only 3.7 percent (2.7 million) of the population. The remaining

regions each represent less than 9 percent of the population.

Population density is highest in the highlands, which run through

central Ethiopia along the Great Rift Valley and stretch north to

the border with Eritrea. The highlands have a population density

of 65 people per square kilometer (169 per square mile) according

to the 2007 census. Urban settlements cover less than 0.5 percent

of Ethiopia’s land area. Urban population density is 2,820 people

per square kilometer (7,306 per square mile)

. Addis Ababa has

the highest population density, with more than 5,100 people per

square kilometer (13,300 per square mile).

Internal displacement is signiﬁcant. Ethnic clashes and regional

conﬂicts force many to seek shelter elsewhere in Ethiopia. Conﬂict

between Ethiopia and Eritrea has displaced many Ethiopians, who

have not yet resettled. Displacement to and from neighboring coun-

tries is substantial. Refugees from Eritrea, Somalia, and Sudan

are seeking safety in Ethiopia. Nearly 15,000 Ethiopian refugees

Adigudom

Adishehu

Chelena

Bora

Dela

Samre

Adi

Zeyla

Guya

Abi

Adi

Edaga Arbi

Mahibere

Degu

Abakh

Adwa

Axum

Rama

Gerehusernay

Enticino

Yeha

Dibdibo

Nebelet

Edaga Hamus

Adigrat

Sinkata

Hawzien

Wukro

Southern

Zone

Eastern

Zone

Central

Zone

Western

Zone

Zala Ambesa

Bizet

Adi

Haregay

Inde

Silase

Indabaguna

May Tsebri

Adi

Goshu

Zeben

Gedena

Sherara

Dansha

Baeker

Humera

Bereket

Afar

Region

Amhara

Region

Gonder

Mekele

SUDAN

ERITREA

Ethiopia/Eritrea Border Region

Regional capital

Zonal capital

Wereda capital

Town

Displaced camp

Movement of

displaced

Primary road

All weather road

Dry weather road

International border

Regional border

Zonal border

Displaced area

Displaced Popluation

are reported to be living in Kenya as of 2007. Between 200,000

and 250,000 Ethiopians are refugees. Most are in the Gambella,

Oromiya, and Somali regions, which also suffer from ethnic con-

ﬂicts. Droughts, famine, ﬂoods, and landslides are among other

contributing factors to migration patterns.

Omo

Indian

Ocean

Gulf of

Aden

Red

Sea

Lake

Turkana

Kibre

Mengist

Adwa

Nazret

Jijiga

Bonga

Dolo

Bay

Dire Dawa

Gonder

Mekele

Nekemte

Dese

Debre

Markos

Gore

Yirga

'Alem

Asela

Harer

Goba

Arba Minch

Jima

KHARTOUM

DJIBOUTI

ADDIS

ABABA

MOGADISHU

ASMARA

SAUDI

ARABIA

YEMEN

SUDAN

UGANDA

KENYA

SOMALIA

DJIBOUTI

ERITREA

Boundary not defined and in dispute

Ethiopia

National Capital

City

International Border

150

150 mi

100

200 km

500

100

persons per kilometers

Population Density

Population of the Major Cities in Ethiopia

City Coordinates Population (2007)

Addis Ababa 0900N 03845E 2.7 million

Bahir Dar 1160N 03738E 220,300

Dire Dawa 0935N 04152E 343,000

Gonder 1236N 03728E 207,000

Nazret (Adama) 0832N 03916E 222,000

Population Density

The exact number of ethnic groups in Ethiopia is unknown, but

anthropologists speculate it is between 60 and 80. According to

the 2007 census, the largest ethnic groups are the Oromo (34.5

percent), Amhara (27 percent), Somali (6.2 percent), Tigray

(6 percent), Sidama (4 percent), Guragie (2.5 percent), and the

Welaita (2.3 percent). The Oromo, Ethiopia’s largest ethnic group,

is dominant in central and southern Ethiopia. The Amhara and

Tigray generally reside in the north, the Afar resides in the north-

east, and the Somali resides in the southeast.

Most linguistic afﬁliations among the ethnic groups are based

on languages that belong to the Afro-Asiatic language family:

Cushitic, Ethio-Semitic, and Omotic. Cushitic speakers are gener-

ally located in central Ethiopia, stretching north, south, and east.

The Afar, Oromo, Sidama, and Somali languages belong to the

Cushitic group. Ethio-Semitic speakers generally live in the high-

lands of central and northern Ethiopia. The Amhara, Silte, and

Tigrigna languages belong to the Ethio-Semitic group. Omotic

speakers are in the far southwest along the Omo River. The largest

group of Omotic speakers is the Welaita (Welamo). While most

Ethiopians speak Afro-Asiatic languages, some in the west and

southwest along the border with Sudan speak languages from the

Nilo-Saharan language family.

Society

Most Ethiopians are poor and are aware of the economic and po-

litical difﬁculties preventing the country from moving forward.

Most understand that political parties, many of which are ethni-

cally based, are hindering the development of a strong national

identity. Ethnic tensions and militant movements affect national

cohesion. Government-demarcated land boundaries, not recog-

nized by tribes, divide ethnic groups.

Although Amharic is the national language, regional languages

are becoming more signiﬁcant as local governments exercise

their freedom to choose their own language for administration.

Ethiopia’s diverse society comprises strong ethnic loyalties that

resist the major ethnic inﬂuences. Other major inﬂuences on soci-

ety are The Ethiopian Orthodox Church and Islam.

Marriages, births, and deaths are signiﬁcant events in Ethiopian so-

ciety. Christian mothers go to their mother’s home with their new-

born. Newborn boys will stay at their grandmother’s home with

their mother for 40 days; girls stay for 80 days. Babies are baptized

after the 40- or 80-day period. Following the baptism, the baby’s

family rolls the baby on top of a piece of fresh injera (Ethiopian

ﬂat bread), believing this guarantees a rich life for the baby.

Marriage traditions in Ethiopia vary between groups. Some mar-

riages are arranged. Although this practice is losing popular-

ity, families still have inﬂuence regarding spouse selection. The

groom’s family pays a dowry to the bride’s family. The amount

is not ﬁxed; it varies according to wealth. Weddings take place

at houses of worship or in a takelil ceremony. During the takelil,

the bride and groom agree never to divorce. Brides join their hus-

band’s family. Weddings are elaborate family events that last up

to 3 days.

Funeral Procession (courtesy of traveladventures.org)

When a death occurs in a Christian family, men and women grieve

by wailing and pulling at their hair. Christian families host a wake

for several days before the funeral and burial. Muslims bury their

dead within 24 hours of death. The body is wrapped in a white

shroud and buried with the head facing Mecca. The Muslim call

to prayer is recited and members of the funeral party throw dirt

into the grave while reciting from the Qur’an. The grave is then

ﬁlled and the ceremony leader recites other prayers.

A signiﬁcant public tradition in Ethiopia is the Christian celebra-

tion of Meskel, which commemorates the 4

century ﬁnding of the

cross on which Jesus Christ was cruciﬁed.

People

The Oromo and Amhara are the largest ethnic groups in Ethiopia.

Most Ethiopians live in rural areas and farm small agricultural plots.

Male-to-female Ratio

At birth 1.03 male(s)/female

Under 15 years 1.00 male(s)/female

15 to 64 years 0.96 male(s)/female

65 years and older 0.75 male(s)/female

Total population (2009 est.) 0.97 male(s)/female

Oromo (Central)

The Oromo inhabit most of central Ethiopia. They are the largest

ethnic group, accounting for 34.5 percent of the population, but

they have never maintained political power. The Oromo claim to

be oppressed and exploited; a lack of political representation has

resulted in Oromo separatist movements.

Amhara

The Amhara live mainly in the northwest. They are the domi-

nant ethnic group and now inhabit many areas. Their dominance

led to the adoption of Amharic as the national language. Political

dominance was maintained with the help of the

Tigray who also

resided in the north. Resistance to the Amhara’s dominance has

resulted in separatist movements, particularly among the Oromo.

The Amhara make up 27 percent of the population.

Somali

The Somali inhabit the eastern regions of Ethiopia. They make

up 6.2 percent of the population and are predominately Muslim.

The Oromo and Somali languages belong to the Cushitic group.

Ethiopia and Somalia fought a border war in 1964 and a conﬂict

from 1977 to 1978 over the Ogaden Region of Ethiopia, which is

inhabited mostly by ethnic Somalis. Somali separatist movements

operate from the Somali territory and continue to create domestic

and regional tensions. In response to domestic attacks carried out

by Somali separatist movements in 2007, security forces restrict

deliveries of food aid and commercial trafﬁc to the Somali Region.

Tigray

The Tigray come from the northern regions of what is now

the state of Tigray, which they share with the Amhara. The

Amhara and Tigray speak languages belonging to the Ethio-

Semitic group. The Tigray make up 6 percent of the population.

The main political group in Ethiopia, the Ethiopian People’s

Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), consists of mostly

Amhara and Tigray.

Ethiopia’s government recognizes 64 ethnic groups: a list of the

largest ethnic groups is as follows:

Major Ethnic Groups

Group Population Location/Region

Amhara 19.9 million Addis Ababa, Afar, Amhara, Benishangul-

Gumuz, Dire Dawa, Gambella, Oromia,

Tigray, SNNP

Guragie 1.9 million Addis Ababa, Oromia, SNNP

Oromo

25.5 million

Amhara, Benishangul-Gumuz, Oromia, Somali

Sidama 3 million SNNP, Oromia

Somali 4.6 million Dire Dawa, Oromia, Somali

Tigray 4.5 million Addis Ababa, Tigray

Welaita 1.7 million Oromia, SNNP

Refugees

More than 380,000 refugees have been in Ethiopia, including

200,000 Somalis, 55,000 Sudanese, 3,000 Djiboutians, and about

5,000 Kenyans who ﬂed ethnic strife in northeastern Kenya in

mid-1993. Aid from the United Nations High Commissioner for

Refugees (UNHCR) to the refugees in Ethiopia includes signiﬁ-

cant ﬁnancial and development assistance. The UNHCR main-

tains 14 camps in Ethiopia.

The Somalis mainly arrived in 1988–1992, ﬂeeing civil war and

famine. Others arrived in late 1994, following renewed inter-

clan clashes. Recent ﬁghting in northwest Somalia is a major

obstacle to the repatriation of Somali refugees, though a pilot

project involving 10,000 refugees from camps around Jijiga and

Aware is planned.

‘Asal

Red

Sea

Boundary not demarcated, and under dispute

Berbera

Galcaio

Garoowe

Hargeysa

Degeh Bur

Darwanaji

Terferi Ber

Kebribeya

Hartishek

Carnaboker

Rabasso

Daror

Harer

Dire

Dawa

DJIBOUTI

SOMALIA

DJIBOUTI

City

Somali Refugee Camp

Protected Area

Ethiopia

100

150 mi

150

100

200 km

Primary Somali Refugee Camps

The Sudanese ﬂed their country because of famine and civil war.

The number of Sudanese refugees is increasing because of ongo-

ing ﬁghting in Sudan. Most of the refugees are Nilotic Sudanese

of the Nuer, Dinka, and Shiluk ethnic groups. With no peace fore-

seen, it is unlikely that the refugees will return to Sudan soon. In

mid-1993, up to 18,000 Afar refugees from Djibouti ﬂed to north-

eastern Ethiopia after ethnic clashes and civil war; their exact

number has never been determined. A peace agreement signed

in Djibouti in 1994 was anticipated to pave the way for eventual

repatriation, but the refugees have yet to return.

There are approximately 11,000 internally displaced people

around Addis Ababa and an additional 25,000 near Dollo, the tri-

border of Ethiopia; Kenya; and Somalia, including 10,000 people

in Gode.

Social Hierarchy

Ethiopia’s social hierarchy has resulted in four groups: high-rank-

ing lineages, low-ranking lineages, caste groups, and slaves. In

some cases, one’s ethnicity also determined one’s social stand-

ing, marriage prospects, and employment opportunities, and made

some ethnic groups slaves to others. The social hierarchy is not as

strong as it once was, but it is still inﬂuential in rural areas. Some

jobs carry more prestige than others do. Ethiopians consider jobs

such as leatherworking, metalworking, and pottery making to be

of low social standing.

Family

The typical family structure includes the father, mother, children,

and extended family. Some adult male siblings (and their families)

live together in a common space provided by the family patriarch.

Living with extended family is common in rural areas. Some fam-

ilies have servants. Extended family and servants help with raising

children when both parents work outside the home. Rural children

begin helping with chores at home at an earlier age than children

in urban areas do.

Men, particularly Muslims, can have more than one wife (polyg-

amy). Males tend to marry at a later age than do females. Many

marriages in rural areas are still arranged; however, in urban

areas individuals usually choose their own partners. Couples ei-

ther marry in their respective houses of worship (church, mosque,

synagogue, temple) or conduct a takelil. A takelil is a ceremony in

which a bride and groom agree never to divorce. Brides join the

husband’s family.

Debo and iddir are traditional forms of social welfare systems.

Debo is communal sharing of work. Farmers having difﬁculties

Ethiopian Woman and Child

may invite neighbors over to help in return for food and drink.

The iddir provides aid for people in the same neighborhood or oc-

cupation and between family and friends during emergencies. The

head of each family contributes money monthly to the iddir. Iddirs

are also used for community development.

Roles of Men and Women

Ethiopia has a patriarchal society. Men are the leaders in society

and in their households. Men dominate the job market and are

responsible for heavy agricultural work, such as cultivating, har-

vesting, tilling, woodcutting, and herding livestock.

Women are primarily responsible for light harvesting and brewing

beer, buying and selling items in the market, cooking, cleaning,

laundry, and fetching water and wood. Women generally work at

Ethiopian Children

home and are in charge of daily household responsibilities. Women

are also responsible for child care, including meeting educational

and medical needs. Although men are the authority ﬁgures in the

household, women and extended family members may discipline

children. Women have fewer economic opportunities than men

have. Women are economically dependent on male relatives and

have little inﬂuence in family and community matters. Tradition

prevails over some legal rights for women, such as inheritance

and property rights. Female-headed households are more margin-

alized and poorer than male-headed households.

Women have legal equality and are part the workforce, but they

are poorly represented at higher levels in all careers and continue

to face discrimination in the workplace. Women have higher lev-

els of unemployment, and women’s salaries are signiﬁcantly less

than those of their male counterparts are. Discrimination against

Oromo Men Working in Southern Ethiopia

women is less common in urban areas than in rural areas. Women

held only 21 percent of lower Parliament seats and 19 percent of

upper Parliament seats as of May 2007. Three of the 14 members

of the Supreme Court were women. Ten percent of Ethiopians

working in the government at the ministerial level were women.

Women also face discrimination at home. Domestic violence is

pervasive. It is estimated that nearly 79 percent of women suffer

from domestic violence. Societal pressure, values, and a limited

infrastructure prevent women from reporting marital violence and

rape. The government takes little action against domestic violence.

Often domestic violence is not reported, investigated, or prosecut-

ed because authorities do not consider it a serious justiﬁcation for

divorce. Sexual harassment is widespread, and laws against sexual

harassment are rarely enforced. Child abuse is also widespread,

particularly among girls.

Children become adults at age 18. The minimum legal age for

marriage is 18 for both males and females. Universal suffrage is

granted at 18 years of age.

Males and females are eligible for vol-

untary and obligatory military service at age 18. The minimum

age for employment is 14, and regulations ensure that those under

the age of 18 have limited work hours and are prohibited from

working in hazardous conditions.

Education and Literacy Rates

Primary education is universal and free but not compulsory.

lasts for 8 years from age 6 to age 14. Basic education is the ﬁrst

cycle of primary school, and general education is the second cycle.

Secondary education is from ages 14 through 18 and is divided

into two cycles: general secondary education (ages 14 to 16) and

preparatory secondary education (ages 16 to 18). Students may

enroll in technical school, vocational school, or a university after

completing general secondary education.

Students earn a diploma or certiﬁcate upon completion of ad-

vanced training in technical and vocational programs such as

agriculture, engineering, and technology. Universities offer 3- to

5-year programs leading to a bachelor’s degree. Schools of teach-

ing and nursing educate students in 1- to 3-year specialized courses.

Ethiopian College Students

Master’s degree students complete an additional 2 years of study.

Doctoral degrees require on average 3 years of further study.

Many families, particularly rural families, cannot afford to send

their children to school because the families lack the funds to pro-

vide basic school necessities.

Other issues include a lack of teach-

ers and schools, and the length of travel required to reach schools

in some rural areas may be excessive.

Ethiopia’s government funds the education system. Several non-

governmental organizations (NGOs) provide assistance. Religious

organizations have schools, but the law forbids religious instruc-

tion in school. English is taught in secondary and tertiary schools

and is becoming more prevalent.

Ethiopia is working with international organizations to improve

enrollment rates and attendance, particularly in rural communi-

Ethiopian School Children

ties. Ethiopia’s largest educational issues are lack of schools, ma-

terials, and qualiﬁed teachers. The literacy rate for adults is 36

percent and the youth literacy rate is 50 percent; both have large

disparities between males and females, 27 and 24 percent, respec-

tively, according to UNESCO (2004). Most of the literate popula-

tion is male.

Students are taught basic reading, writing, and arithmetic in pri-

mary school. Students have the option to attend technical and vo-

cational classes during general secondary school. Advanced lev-

els of foreign languages, mathematics, and sciences are taught in

secondary school. The variety of subjects taught in some schools

is limited by the lack of qualiﬁed instructors. Children receive

instruction on mine safety; subjects involve the risks concerning

landmines, unexploded ordnance, and explosive remnants of war.

Education Enrollment

Enrollment

(2006) Male Female Total Population

Pre-primary 3% 2% 3%

Primary 90% 77% 83%

Secondary 34% 21% 27%

Tertiary 4% 1% 2%

Males outnumber females throughout all levels of schooling. The

largest disparity (13 percent) occurs in the primary and second-

ary educational phases, according to UNESCO. Combined gross

enrollment ratio for education is 28.8 percent (2006).

Many children do not attend school; they stay home and help with

herding livestock and household chores. Some work as laborers

for additional family income. Many children who do attend school

do not ﬁnish.

Much of their education is attained through Ethiopia’s oral liter-

ature, which is rich in proverbs and stories. Ethiopia maintains

some of the last remaining stories from Biblical literature that are

not included in the Bible.

Religion

Religion is inﬂuential in Ethiopian life and culture. The two

main religions are Christianity and Islam, practiced by 62.8 per-

cent and 34 percent of the population, respectively. Sixty-nine

percent of the Christian population is Ethiopian Orthodox. Most

Muslims are Sunni.

Ethiopian Orthodoxy was adopted in A.D. 332 and remains a strong

inﬂuence. However, other religious groups such as Protestants and

Pentecostals (Evangelicals) have gained converts. Other religious

Mosque

groups include Baha’is, Catholics, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Jews, and

Seventh-day Adventists. Some Ethiopians continue to practice tra-

ditional indigenous religions.

Orthodox Christianity is the dominant religion in northern and

central Ethiopia. The southwest states of Gambella and SNNP

have the largest Protestant populations: 70 percent and 55.5 per-

cent, respectively. Islam is the most prevalent religion in the east

and southeast states of Afar, Dire Dawa, Harer, Oromia, and

Somali. Somali has the highest concentration of Muslims at 98

percent. Islam is practiced by 45 percent of the population in

Benishangul-Gumuz state along the western border with Sudan.

The largest populations of adherents to traditional religions are

in the states of Oromia and SNNP

Ethiopian Orthodox Women

The law provides for freedom of religion, and the government

generally respects this freedom; however, occasionally, local au-

thorities violate this right, particularly when religious organiza-

tions seek land for churches, mosques, and cemeteries. Ethiopia

requires all religious groups to register annually, but it does not

enforce such regulations. Ethiopia’s constitution requires separa-

tion of state and religion. As a result, public and private schools

cannot provide religious instruction or teach religion as a course

of study. Churches, however, may teach Sunday school, and the

Qur’an is taught at mosques. Religious political parties are banned.

Ethiopian society is generally tolerant of all religions. However,

isolated incidents of religion-based conﬂicts have erupted in the

past. Tensions exist among Suﬁ Muslims over Saudi-funded enti-

Muslim Woman

ties, most of which have Salaﬁ/Wahabi inﬂuences. Some differ-

ences between Suﬁ and Wahabi followers are described below.

Sufism (tasawwuf)

Suﬁsm adherents seek a closer relationship with God through spir-

itual disciplines. The dhikr (exercises) involve reciting prayers and

Qur’an passages and repeating names or attributes of God while

performing physical movements. Suﬁsm has strong mystical ele-

ments. Suﬁs follow the basic tenets of Islam but do not follow all

Orthodox practices. Knowledge is important to Suﬁ Muslims, who

value the role of teachers. Suﬁs interpret jihad as a ﬁght against

one’s own ﬂaws in an attempt to reach perfection.

Wahabism

Wahabism is a subdivision of Salaﬁ, which opposes all practices

not sanctioned by the Qur’an. Wahabi Muslims believe Suﬁs de-

viate from true Islamic practices, such as in venerating saints or

building decorative tombs. Wahabism does not venerate saints.

Firm Wahabi followers want to revive the old concept of jihad

(holy war) to convert inﬁdels.

Recreation

Soccer is played throughout Ethiopia and is, by far, Ethiopia’s

most popular sport. Those who cannot afford soccer balls play

with improvised versions. Track-and-ﬁeld events such as long-

distance running are also popular. Gena (ﬁeld hockey) and gugs

(horse racing) are popular traditional sports. Other sports played

in Ethiopia are basketball, volleyball, and table tennis. Hopscotch

and jacks are popular children’s games.

Dancing, singing folk songs, and playing music are popular forms

of entertainment at social activities. Traditional Ethiopian mu-

sic involves instruments such as the kebero (drum), krar (lyre),

tsenatsil (rattle), and washint (reed ﬂute). Traditional arts include

basket and carpet weaving, embroidery, jewelry making, metal-

working, pottery, and wood carving.

Customs and Courtesies

Gestures that are common in the United States but may be offen-

sive in Ethiopia include the following:

■ Pointing or beckoning with one ﬁnger or a foot; use your en-

tire hand

■ Using the left hand to pass items, exchange money, shake

hands, or eat

■ Keeping one’s hands in one’s pockets during conversation

■ Finger snapping and whistling

■ Showing the soles of one’s feet

Conversations about politics, the economy, money, private matters,

and job details should be avoided. Questions regarding ethnicity

and birthplace may be negatively interpreted. Ethiopians enjoy

humor; telling jokes is acceptable, but jokes should be kept clean.

Close friends of either gender will greet each other by name, with

a kiss on the cheek, and Ethiopians shake hands with everyone

they meet. The following are typical greetings meaning How are

you? in Amharic, Oromigna, and Tigrigna:

Amharic

Indemin nih?

(males)

Indemin nish?

(females)

Tena yistilin?

(formal greeting for either gender)

Indemin nawot?

(elders and respected individuals)

Oromigna

Akam jirta?

(either gender)

Tigrigna

Kamelaha?

(males)

Kamelehee?

(females)

Greet elders by lowering or bowing your head; this is a sign of

respect throughout Ethiopia. Children often bow and kiss elders’

knees. Address people by title and given name. Ato (Mr.) is a com-

mon title for men and Weizero (Mrs.) and Weizerit (Miss) are com-

mon titles for women.

Ethiopians maintain a reasonable distance when holding a conver-

sation. Asking about one’s health or family is common. Pocketing

hands during a conversation or maintaining prolonged eye contact

are considered rude. Touch is also a common part of conversa-

tion and conveys trust; however, touching someone of the opposite

gender is unacceptable. Trilling one’s tongue with a sharp-pitched

tone indicates excitement or happiness. Slowly nodding one’s head

indicates disagreement.

Women should not wear excessive makeup, drink and smoke in

public, or wear revealing clothing; men view these as a sign of

availability. Women should never agree to visit an unmarried man

at his house; this is likely to be misinterpreted.

Suits and ties are standard business clothing for men; women

wear dresses or skirts. Traditional white clothing decorated with

colorful designs is common in northern and central regions.

Some Ethiopians wear headscarves and robes. Wearing shorts or

revealing clothing brings extra attention.

Visiting friends is common in

Ethiopia. Ethiopians are ex-

tremely hospitable. Unplanned

visits are common among

friends and family. It is proper

to remove one’s shoes upon

entering an Ethiopian’s home.

Guests are not always shown

where to sit, which may be on

the ﬂoor if visiting a Muslim’s

home. Guests are offered re-

freshments and coffee; refus-

ing is considered impolite.

Ethiopians serve meals from a

communal dish, and it is com-

mon to eat from it with one’s

ﬁngers. Males and females

converse separately in some

Muslims’ homes. Chewing

khat, a stimulant, is popular among Muslim males.

Public displays of affection are unacceptable, but it is common

to see close friends, particularly females, holding hands in public.

When giving or receiving gifts, one should extend both hands so

as not to seem reluctant or unappreciative.

Most restaurants and hotels add a 10-percent surcharge to the bill.

Tipping is common but not required; a small amount is appreci-

ated. When dining at a restaurant, the ﬁrst person to leave custom-

arily pays the bill. Haggling is acceptable, and even expected, at

local markets. Visitors who do not want to haggle can purchase

items in town from shops with ﬁxed prices. Foreigners are often

charged more than locals are, particularly in marketplaces.

Traditional Clothing

Cultural Considerations

Ethiopia has large Christian and Muslim populations. Cultural

considerations include the following:

■ Walking in front of someone who is praying is rude

■ Dress codes at religious sites are conservative

■ Remove shoes before entering temples, mosques, and homes

■ Females are not allowed to enter some holy sites

■ Using the left hand is considered unclean

■ Payment is expected when taking pictures in some areas; ask

and agree with the payment in advance

Initial business meetings are formal but become less formal when

friendships develop. Ethiopians often conduct business at the ofﬁce,

over lunch or dinner. Customary business courtesies are important.

Business cards are common; presenting one with English-language

print will not cause any difﬁculties in a business setting. Punctuality

is important, but reasonable tardiness is understandable.

Normal business hours are Monday through Friday generally

between 0800 and 1730. Some businesses may remain open

as late as 2000, depending on the type of business and loca-

tion. Businesses close for lunch. Most businesses are open on

Saturdays. Ethiopia authorizes a 2-hour lunch break for Muslims

to pray on Fridays. Government ofﬁce hours are Monday through

Friday between 0800 and 1730. Post ofﬁce hours are Monday

through Friday 0800 to 1600 and Saturday 0800 to 1200. Normal

banking hours are Monday through Friday 0800 to 1600. Sunday

is not a workday.

MEDICAL ASSESSMENT

The quality of health care in Ethiopia is among the poorest in

Sub-Saharan Africa and far below Western standards. More than

50 percent of hospitals need major repairs or renovation; most

have antiquated equipment and experience medical supply short-

ages. The lack of basic infrastructure for necessities such as elec-

tricity and water further worsens the health care situation. The

care provided by most medical personnel does not meet Western

standards; however, some physicians receive their education in

Western hospitals and schools. Nursing and ancillary skills are far

below Western standards.

Disease Risks to Deployed U.S. Personnel

The National Center for Medical Intelligence (NCMI) assesses

Ethiopia as HIGH RISK for diseases. If basic self-protective mea-

sures are not employed, there is a high likelihood of getting sick.

Many of the diseases in Ethiopia are serious; some are fatal.

The following is a summary of the main disease risks in Ethiopia,

and what can be done to reduce your individual risk of getting sick.

The recommendations below are not a substitute for formal guid-

ance promulgated by unit and higher level commanders who often

direct speciﬁc force health protection policies. ALWAYS discuss

the risks and protective measures listed below with your unit’s med-

ical department representative. More detailed information is con-

tained in Baseline Infectious Disease Risk Assessments, produced

by NCMI, is available at https://www.intelink.gov/ncmi/index.php.

Food- or Waterborne Diseases

Sanitation is poor throughout the country, including major urban

areas. Local food and water sources (including ice) are heavily

contaminated. Eating and drinking on the local economy is likely

to cause high rates of diarrhea. To lower the risk of diarrhea and

other illnesses:

■ Don’t drink the tap water; don’t use it even to brush teeth.

Avoid ice in drinks. Bottled water is safer.

■ Avoid food from street vendors or any establishment which does

not appear to be clean. Food from tourist-oriented facilities

such as hotels and ‘higher end’ restaurants is generally safer.

■ Avoid any uncooked items, including salads or fruits which have

been prepared and handled. Fruits you peel yourself are safer.

■ Make sure all food is served steaming hot.

■ Make sure hepatitis A and typhoid vaccines are up to date

(both required by military policy).

Vectorborne Diseases

Biting insects such as mosquitoes, ticks, and sandﬂies carry seri-

ous diseases, including malaria, dengue fever, and others. Most of

these diseases can make you very sick, and some can kill. To lower

the risk of these diseases:

■ Many disease-carrying insects bite at night. To reduce this,

sleep in quarters with window screens. If in the ﬁeld, sleep

under a bed net.

■ Use repellents containing DEET on all exposed skin, both day

and night. Re-apply every 4 to 6 hours as needed.

■ Uniforms and bed nets should be treated with permethrin

(which repels and kills insects).

■ Blouse or tuck in pant legs into boot tops, to keep ticks from

crawling onto and biting the legs.

■ If prescribed malaria pills, TAKE THEM exactly as directed.

Don’t skip doses.

■ If you develop a fever, you should seek medical attention.

Fever is often the ﬁrst sign of a serious and potentially fatal

infection such as malaria.

Sexually Transmitted and/or Bloodborne Diseases

Gonorrhea, chlamydia, and other infections may affect a high per-

centage of personnel who have unprotected sexual contact. The

risk of HIV/AIDS is also a major concern, as well as hepatitis B.

Prostitutes are particularly high risk for all these infections. To

lower the risk of sexually transmitted diseases:

■ Avoid sexual contact, particularly with prostitutes.

■ If electing to have sexual contact, use a condom. Use it prop-

erly, and every time.

■ Get vaccinated against hepatitis B (required by the military

for Ethiopia).

■ ALWAYS follow Command policies regarding interactions with

host country nationals, to include interactions with prostitutes.

Water-contact Diseases

Activities such as wading or swimming in lakes, rivers, streams, or

other surface water may result in personnel becoming ill with seri-

ous diseases. These bodies of water are often contaminated with

bacteria and parasites which can penetrate through the skin, and

cause serious diseases (including leptospirosis and schistosomia-

sis). Prolonged water contact also may lead to development of a

variety of potentially debilitating skin conditions such as bacterial

or fungal dermatitis. To reduce the risk of water-contact diseases:

■ Avoid swimming or wading in lakes, rivers, streams, or other

surface waters.

■ If exposure is unavoidable, minimize the time in the water.

■ Swimming in chlorinated pools is safer.

Respiratory Diseases

Local populations carry a wide variety of common respiratory in-

fections, including meningitis, inﬂuenza, and viral upper respira-

tory infections (‘common cold’). These are spread by close con-

tact. To reduce the risk of respiratory diseases in Ethiopia:

■ Get vaccinated against meningococcal meningitis (required

by AFRICOM policy).

■ Be sure vaccinations against measles, diphtheria, and pertus-

sis are up to date (required by military policy).

■ Avoid close contact with people who have a cough, sneezing,

runny nose, or other symptoms of respiratory infection.

■ Wash hands frequently. Many of the germs which cause respi-

ratory infection are transmitted on the hands, not just through

the air.

Animal-associated diseases

Rabies risk in Ethiopia is among the highest in the world – rabies

deaths occur regularly in the local population. Rabies-infected

dogs and cats are extremely common, and human infection is usu-

ally associated with direct animal contact (bites or scratches). To

reduce the risk of rabies:

■ Avoid contact with dogs, cats, and other animals

■ If bitten or scratched by a dog, cat, or other animal SEEK

MEDICAL ATTENTION FOR RABIES SHOTS. Rabies is

100 percent fatal in people who do not receive rabies shots

after a bite. Proper cleaning of the bite wound by medical

personnel is essential.

Medical Capabilities

Ethiopia has a total of 143 hospitals and 690 health centers, but

less than 20 percent of Ethiopians live within a 2-hour walk of

a health care facility. Medical facilities generally do not meet

Western standards for cleanliness. Most private facilities provide

better health care than public hospitals. The only hospitals rec-

ommended for use by U.S. personnel, for stabilization only, are

St. Gabriel’s Hospital and Hayat Hospital, both in Addis Ababa.

Although other private facilities are available, they are considered

substandard for stabilization.

Ethiopia imports most pharmaceuticals and all medical supplies

and equipment. The country’s two pharmaceutical factories pro-

duce basic medicines. The Ethiopian Pharmaceutical and Medical

Supplies Corporation handles warehousing and distribution of

medical materiel.

The blood supply does not meet Western standards. The Ethiopian

Red Cross supplies 90 percent of the nation’s blood needs, but

only 43 percent are made by voluntary, non-remunerated donors.

Blood is reportedly screened for HIV, hepatitis B and C, and other

sexually transmitted infections. Power shortages and poor refrig-

eration further compromise the blood supply system.

Amarigna and Oromigna are each spoken by more than 30 percent

of the population. English is the major foreign language taught in

schools and is understood by most medical personnel.

Medical Facilities

Facility Hayat Hospital

Coordinates 08-59-40N 038-47-43E

City Addis Ababa

Location Off the Ring Road, across from the Moenco Toyota

dealership

Telephone Administrative 251-1-614250

Emergency 251-1-624488, 251-1-81096

Type Private

Bed capacity 75

Capabilities

Medical – dentistry, dermatology, gastroenterol-

ogy, general; Surgical – cardiothoracic, general;

Ancillary – Computed tomography (CT) scanner,

emergency room, intensive care unit, ultrasound,

urology, X-ray

Comments

One of the newest hospitals in Addis Ababa. Consid-

ered a well-equipped facility, but does not meet West-

ern standards. Recommended by U.S. Embassy for

stabilizing patients awaiting emergency evacuation.

Facility Saint Gabriel’s Hospital

Coordinates 09-00-30N 038-46-20E

City Addis Ababa

Location Off Asmara Street, east of Mesket Square

Telephone Administrative 251-1-613622

Emergency 251-1-614400

Type Private

Beds 44

Capabilities Medical – dentistry, dermatology, general; Surgi-

cal – general, obstetrics/gynecology, neurosurgery;

Ancillary – blood gas analyzer, four intensive care

unit beds, laboratory, mammography, two operat-

ing rooms with one ventilator, ultrasound, X-ray

Comments

Not up to Western standards, but best-equipped med-

ical treatment facility in Addis Ababa. Clean, well

maintained. Recommended by U.S. Embassy for

stabilizing patients awaiting emergency evacuation.

HISTORY

Chronology of Key Events

Date Event

century Kingdom of Axum emerges

270 Axumites begin producing coins

century Rise of Islam and decline of Axum

century Zagwe dynasty emerges

1527 Muslims attack Ethiopia

1896 Italy invades Ethiopia; treaty rejected because of

misinterpretation

1935 Italy invades Ethiopia, but surrenders in 1941

1962 Eritrea annexed by Ethiopia; sparks a 30-year strug-

gle for independence

1972–1974 Major famine in Ethiopia

1974 Haile Selassie overthrown in military coup; Gen

Teferi Benti becomes head of state; new government

known as the Derg takes power

1977–1979 Thousands of government opponents die in Red

Terror; Somalia invades Ethiopia’s Ogaden region;

Somali forces defeated with massive help from the

Soviet Union and Cuba

1984–1985 Ethiopia struck by worst famine in a decade

1987 Mengistu elected president

1988 Ethiopia and Somalia sign peace treaty

1991

Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic

Front (EPRDF) captures Addis Ababa, forces Men-

gistu to ﬂee the country

1998–2000 Border dispute with Eritrea erupts into armed con-

ﬂict in 1998 and full-scale war in 1999; cease-ﬁre

signed in 2000

Date Event

2002 Ethiopia, Eritrea accept a new common border,

drawn up by an independent commission, though

both sides then lay claim to the town of Badme

2003 400 Anuak civilians massacred in Gambella by army.

2004 Resettlement program implemented

2005 Elections marred by violence

2006 Extensive ﬂooding throughout the country; hundreds

die, thousands left homeless

2006 Ethiopian troops enter Mogadishu

2007 Ethiopia rejects border line demarcated by the inter-

national boundary commission; Eritrea accepts it

2008 Ethiopia’s Supreme Court sentences former ruler

Mengistu Haile Mariam to death

Ethiopia is one of the oldest countries in the world and the location

of the earliest known skeletal remains of human ancestors. Two

archaeological discoveries that took place in 1974 and 1994 in the

Awash Valley revealed humanlike bones estimated to be 3.2 and

4.5 million years old, respectively. Evidence of more advanced

civilizations dating back to 5000 B.C. includes stone tools and

cave drawings. Domestication of livestock and early grain cultiva-

tion began in the early Bronze Age around 3000 B.C.

Sabeans from southern Arabia began migrating to Ethiopia during

the ﬁrst millennium B.C. They crossed the Red Sea to what became

known as Eritrea and joined existing tribes such as the Agew and

Sidama in the high plateaus. They also brought a writing system

that would later give rise to three of Ethiopia’s Semitic languag-

es (Amharic, Tigrigna, and Tigre) and Ge’ez, the language of the

Axumites. The Sabeans built palaces and other public buildings us-

ing their knowledge of stonework and slowly laid the foundation for

the kingdom of Axum, which would emerge in the 1

century.

Axum was in the northern

province of Tigray near the

Blue Nile Basin and the Afar

Depression. Gold from the Blue

Nile Basin and salt from the

Afar Depression, along with ac-

cess to the port of Adulis on the

Red Sea, made Axum a major

trade center and a gateway be-

tween Byzantium and Persia.

The Axumites began produc-

ing coins out of gold, silver, and

bronze around A.D. 270. The

ﬁrst coins had images of the

ruling kings of the time. The

inﬂuence of Christianity be-

came evident in the 4

century

when images of the Christian

cross appeared on coins.

The Zagwe dynasty emerged

during the end of the 10

century and ruled Ethiopia during the

and 13

centuries. The dynasty abolished the monarchy and at-

tempted to eliminate Christianity but failed. Orthodox Christianity

reemerged in the late 13

century through the Solomonic dynasty

and spread throughout the highlands. Tensions between Christians

and Muslims continued for more than 200 years until the battle

of ad-Dir in 1527, when Muslims attacked Ethiopia. Ethiopia re-

pelled the attack with the help of Portugal.

There was little contact between Ethiopia and Europe for the next

300 years. Britain, France, and Italy did not take an interest in

Ethiopia until the mid-1800s. Egypt was Ethiopia’s largest enemy

Stele to King Ezana, First Axum

Monarch to Embrace Christianity

and seized lands in northern Tigray. Intervention by Britain and

France stopped Egypt’s expansion. When Britain and France with-

drew, Italy invaded and took over the ports of Aseb in 1869 and

Massawa in 1885 before being driven out by Ethiopian forces. A

treaty was ultimately signed that allowed Italy to occupy Asmara;

however, Italy interpreted the agreement as giving it a protectorate

over Ethiopia. Ethiopia rejected this interpretation and renounced

the treaty. The resulting 1896 battle was a clear victory for Ethiopia,

which retained its independence. Eritrea, however, remained under

Italy’s control. Italy invaded Ethiopia again in 1935 but surrendered

in 1941. After World War II, the United Nations placed Eritrea un-

der Ethiopia’s control.

Haile Selassie I ruled Ethiopia

from 1930 to 1974. He is best

known for his many reforms

and his participation in the

Organization of African Unity,

now known as the African

Union. Selassie annexed Eritrea

in 1962, which sparked a 30-

year struggle for independence.

Ethiopia experienced a major

famine between 1972 and 1974.

Nearly 200,000 Ethiopians

died. Rising civil discontent

resulted in a military coup that

deposed Selassie and placed

a Marxist, military govern-

ment in control for the next 17

years. The new government was

known as the Derg (committee).

Haile Selassie Monument

The Derg used the Soviet Union as an example and censored the

press, revoked civil rights, suspended the constitution, and dissolved

Parliament. The new one-party state implemented collective farm-

ing, conﬁscated private property, and nationalized foreign-owned

companies. Opponents were exiled, imprisoned, or killed.

Mengistu Haile came to power in 1977 with the support of the

Soviet Union. He continued the use of violence to stop any resis-

tance. The Red Terror campaign (1976 to 1978) resulted in the

deaths of more than 100,000 Ethiopians. Cuba and the Soviet

Union also aided Ethiopia in defeating Somalia when it invaded

the Ogaden Region in 1977. Famine claimed the lives of another

300,000 Ethiopians between 1983 and 1985. By the mid-1980s,

there was strong opposition to Mengistu from the EPRDF; the

EPRDF supported democracy.

Mengistu was elected president under a new constitution in 1987;

however, when the Soviet Union crumbled (1990 to 1991) and

could no longer support Mengistu, rebels took over Addis Ababa

and declared Meles Zenawi interim president. Mengistu ﬂed to

Zimbabwe. Meles organized local and regional elections in 1992

and 1993. A new constitution was adopted in 1994.

The border dispute with Eritrea erupted into armed conﬂict in

1998 and full-scale war in 1999. A cease-ﬁre was signed in 2000,

and UN observers monitored the withdrawal of Ethiopian troops.

A peace agreement providing for an independent commission to

establish an ofﬁcial border was signed in late 2000. Ethiopia com-

pleted its troop withdrawal in early 2001. The Eritrea-Ethiopia

Boundary Commission (EEBC) deﬁned the border in April 2002.

Both countries were awarded territory, but Badme was awarded

to Eritrea. Both countries initially accepted the EEBC’s decision,

but a few months later Ethiopia requested a reconsideration of the

ruling. Eritrea refused to accept any new rulings on the boundary.

In November 2003 the EEBC met and determined that until one

or both countries modiﬁed their position there was nothing more

the commission could do to resolve the dispute. Ethiopia struggled

with its own internal problems. What began as the army’s attempt

to root out armed Anuak groups responsible for attacks on mi-

grants from other parts of Ethiopia turned into the massacre of

more than 400 Anuak civilians in Gambella in December 2003.

More than 1,000 homes were destroyed. The military was accused

of murder, rape, and torture of the Anuak population.

Concerns over food security caused the government to implement

a resettlement program in 2004, with the intent of relocating 2 mil-

lion people to more fertile land. International organizations and

diplomats criticized the program, claiming that resettlement sites

were isolated, disease ridden, and lacked the proper infrastructure.

The 2005 elections were marred by violence. Protests over alleged

fraud resulted in dozens of deaths. Journalists and opposition

leaders were charged with treason and genocide. As a result, the

Alliance for Freedom and Democracy was formed from six politi-

cal parties and armed groups.

Floods struck the northern, southern, and eastern portions of

Ethiopia in August 2006. An above-normal amount of rainfall

caused several rivers to overﬂow, resulting in extensive ﬂooding

that left thousands homeless and hundreds dead.

In 2006, Ethiopian troops entered Mogadishu to support Somalia’s

weak transitional government and to destroy an Islamist admin-

istration that Ethiopia considered a terrorist threat. The United

Nations accused Ethiopia of violating a 1992 arms embargo on

Somalia by supplying arms to the interim government. Eritrea

was accused of the same violation for supplying arms to the ri-

val Islamist administration. The conﬂict resulted in thousands of

Somalis crossing into Ethiopia in early 2007 to escape the violence.

Political issues with Eritrea continue to plague Ethiopia.

Government

Ethiopia had a monarchy until a

military coup brought a communist

military council, the Derg, to power

in February 1974. LtCol Mengistu

Haile Mariam became leader of the

Derg after having his two prede-

cessors killed. Mengitsu dissolved

the Derg and created the People’s

Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

(PDRE). Mengistu established a

brutal totalitarian communist state

allied with the Soviet Union and

Cuba. His 15-year dictatorship was

ended in 1991 by a coalition of guer-

rilla groups led by forces from the

northern Tigray region. The main rebel group, the EPRDF, formed

a new regime, and EPRDF leader Meles Zenawi became interim

president, followed by Girma Woldegiorgis. A new constitution for

the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, a Parliamentary de-

mocracy, took effect in 1995, and national elections were held. As

a result, Meles Zenawi became prime minister, a position he re-

tained after subsequent elections in 2000, 2005, and 2010. Despite

the country’s democratic institutions, opposition groups and for-

eign observers have noted election irregularities and have accused

the government of widespread human rights abuses.

Prime Minister Meles Zenawi

National Level

Ethiopia has three branches of government: executive, legisla-

tive, and judicial. The prime minister is the head of government.

The legislature consists of a 108-seat upper house, the House of

Federation, and a 547-seat lower house, the House of People’s

Representatives. Ethiopia’s constitution provides for an indepen-

dent judiciary composed of federal and regional courts.

Executive Branch

The executive branch consists of the president; prime minister and

his cabinet, known as the Council of Ministers; and the Council

of State, which has both legislative and executive powers. The

president is head of state, has a largely ceremonial role, and is

elected for no more than two 6-year terms by both houses of the

legislature. Executive authority lies with the prime minister, who

heads the cabinet and is commander of the armed forces. The

prime minister is selected by the political party or coalition with

the most seats in the lower chamber of the legislature, following

national elections, every 5 years.

The prime minister, cabinet min-

isters, and undersecretaries are collectively responsible for formu-

lating and carrying out government policy.

Legislative Branch

The House of People’s Representatives, which is the lower

chamber and responsible for much of the national legislation, is

ﬁlled through popular elections. It elects a speaker and a dep-

uty speaker and forms standing committees. The state legisla-

tures select the members of the House of Federation, the upper

chamber, from the nation’s various ethnic groups. The House of

Federation interprets the constitution and handles regional af-

fairs, such as disputes between the states. Lawmakers in both

houses are elected for 5-year terms.

Judicial Branch

The Federal Supreme Court is the highest court and exercises ju-

risdiction over all federal matters; lesser federal courts hear cases

from the regions. The prime minister recommends the president

and vice president of the Federal Supreme Court and the lower

chamber of the legislature approves the recommendations. Other

federal judges are nominated by a committee and conﬁrmed by

the lower house. The regional judiciary hears cases in the regions

and is increasingly autonomous.

Local Level

Ethiopia has nine administrative regions, created along ethnic/

linguistic lines, and two self-governing city administrations:

Addis Ababa (the capital) and Dire Dawa. Regions have their

own autonomous governing councils, hold their own elections,

and have executive, legislative, and judicial powers. Each region

has two councils: the elected Regional Council (or Parliament)

and a cabinet body called the Regional Administrative Council.

The regions also elect representatives to the House of Federation.

Below the state level, there are 66 zones and 556 woredas. Each

woreda, a sub-district unit that provides much of the public ser-

vices, is divided into numerous kebele. There are elected woreda

and kebele councils.

Key Government Officials

■ President - Girma Woldegiorgis

■ Prime minister - Meles Zenawi

■ Deputy prime minister - Kassu Ilala

■ Deputy prime minister - Addisu Legesse

■ Minister of foreign affairs - Seyoum Mesﬁn

■ Minister of national defense

■ Governor of the national bank

■ Minister of justice

■ Minister of information

■ Speaker, House of People’s Representatives

■ Speaker, House of Federation

Indian

Ocean

Gulf of

Aden

Red

Sea

AMHARA

TIGRAY

AFAR

BENISHANGUL

-GUMUZ

GAMBELA

SOMALI

OROMIA

HARARI

SNNP

Asosa

Bahir

Dar

Adama

Semera

Awasa

Harer

Mekele

Dire

Dawa

Jijiga

Gambela

KHARTOUM

DJIBOUTI

ADDIS

ABABA

MOGADISHU

ASMARA

SAUDI

ARABIA

YEMEN

SUDAN

UGANDA

KENYA

SOMALIA

DJIBOUTI

ERITREA

Boundary not defined and in dispute

Ethiopia

National Capital

Province Capital

Chartered City

Province Border

International Border

Disputed Border

150

150 mi

100

200 km

Administrative Regions

Politics

Ethiopia has universal suffrage for citizens age 18 and older.

The run-up to Ethiopia’s May 2005 national election was con-

sidered the most open, free, and competitive political campaign

in Ethiopia’s history. However, democracy suffered a reverse

in the contentious aftermath of the vote that returned Prime

Minister Meles Zenawi’s ruling EPRDF party to power. Violent

protests were met with a government crackdown on civil liber-

ties. Two hundred demonstrators, bystanders, and police ofﬁcers

died in these demonstrations. Hundreds of opposition members

and their leaders were jailed. Much of the independent media

was shut down. In the aftermath, Ethiopia’s government grew

increasingly authoritarian.

Political Parties

Ethiopia has four major party coalitions represented in the legisla-

ture and 81 registered national and regional parties. The EPRDF

has dominated politics since the overthrow of the Derg in 1991

and held 481 (87.9 percent) of the seats in the lower chamber af-

ter the 2005 election. The other major coalitions are the Unity

for Democracy and Justice Party (UDJ), the United Ethiopian

Democratic Forces (UEDF), and the Oromo Federalist Democratic

Movement (OFDM).

Party Name Description

EPRDF Coalition of regional political movements whose

forces overthrew the Derg regime; ruling party:

1991 through 2005 election; dominated by Tigray

ethnic group

Party Name Description

UDJ Principal coalition of opposition parties; formed in

2008 from splintered Coalition for Unity and De-

mocracy; calls for democratization, constitutional

reform, and economic liberalization, end of ethnic-

based federalism

UEDF Coalition of region-based parties, with most sup-

port in the Oromia and SNNP regions; advocates

democratization and national reconciliation

OFDM Coalition of parties supporting interests of ethnic

Oromo including federalism, land reform, and

Afan Oromo as ofﬁcial language

Foreign Relations

Ethiopia is a landlocked country in the volatile Horn of Africa.

It allied with the Communist Bloc during the Mengistu regime.

Today, Ethiopia is a strategic partner of the United States in

the Global War on Terrorism and recipient of development and

military assistance from the United States and other Western

nations. China is also a major aid donor and investor in Ethiopia.

Issues that dominate Ethiopia’s foreign policy include its tense

border dispute with Eritrea, the security threat caused by the

factional ﬁghting in Somalia, and pressure from its Western al-

lies to improve its human rights behavior. Addis Ababa hosts

the headquarters of the African Union and the Economic

Commission for Africa.

United States

U.S.-Ethiopia relations have improved dramatically since the end

of the Mengistu regime. The United States provided US$474 mil-

lion in assistance in FY2007; US$264 million of this assistance

was for the purpose of combating HIV/AIDS. U.S. development

assistance focuses on reducing famine, hunger, and poverty and

emphasizes economic, governance, and social reforms. The

United States also provides funds for military training, including

training in such issues as the laws of war and observance of hu-

man rights. U.S. policy is to help Ethiopia transition to a multi-

party democracy, promote human rights and the rule of law, and

expand press freedom.

More than 70 percent of Ethiopians have a favorable opinion of

the United Nations, United States, and U.S. citizens. However,

Ethiopians favor the European Union over the United Nations and

the United States. More than half of Ethiopians believe the spread

of U.S. ideas and customs in Ethiopia is good, and they enjoy U.S.

music, movies, and television. More than 90 percent of Ethiopians

admire U.S. scientiﬁc and technical advances. They see the United

States as a strong democracy and agree with U.S. ideals. However,

more than 65 percent of Ethiopians believe that the United States

promotes democracy only when it serves U.S. interests. About 60

percent of Ethiopians support U.S. efforts to ﬁght terrorism. More

than half of Ethiopians believe U.S. troops should leave Iraq, and

48 percent believe the United Nations and the United States should

remove troops from Afghanistan.

Eritrea

Ethiopia and Eritrea, a former Ethiopian state that gained inde-

pendence in 1993, fought a border war from 1998 to 2000 in which

tens of thousands of Eritreans and Ethiopians died. It ended with

an agreement to allow an international commission to demar-

cate the border, but Ethiopia rejected the commission’s decision.

In March 2008, a UN peacekeeping mission withdrew from the

border area after Eritrea placed severe restrictions on its activi-

ties, leaving a dangerous situation, for thousands of Ethiopian and

Eritrean troops. Ethiopia has accused Eritrea of supporting home-

grown Ethiopian rebel groups and Islamist extremists in Somalia,

an act that could destabilize Ethiopia.

Somalia

Ethiopia intervened militarily in Somalia from December 2006

to January 2008 to support a UN-backed transitional government

against the Council of Islamic Courts. This intervention was the

third major conﬂict involving the two countries. Ethiopia and

Somalia had previously fought a border war in 1964 and a conﬂict

in 1977–1978 over Ethiopia’s Ogaden region, which is inhabited

mostly by ethnic Somalis. Ethiopia also conducted cross-border

attacks against Islamic extremists in Somalia in 1996 and 1999.

Factional ﬁghting in Somalia continues to contribute to tensions

along the borders of the two countries.

Djibouti

Djibouti and Ethiopia maintain cordial relations, strong cultural

ties, and vital economic links. When Eritrea gained independence

from Ethiopia in 1993, Ethiopia became landlocked. It was de-

nied access to Eritrean ports when border tensions erupted in

1998, and the port of Djibouti became its primary seaport thereaf-

ter. Similarly, Djibouti depends on Ethiopia as a major source of

agricultural products. Port charges for Ethiopia’s shipments are a

signiﬁcant source of Djibouti’s national income.

China

China’s economic and political ties with Ethiopia have been de-

veloping rapidly in recent years. Since the two countries reached

a partnership agreement in 2003, bilateral trade and aid, includ-

ing low-interest loans, have increased dramatically. China has also

become very active in construction activities, ranging from houses

to the Ring Road in the capital, Addis Ababa.

Sudan and Yemen

Ethiopia and Sudan signed an agreement in March 2000 to nor-

malize relations, ending years of animosity caused by support of

rebel groups in each other’s country. In early 2003, Ethiopia began

to import oil from Sudan; trade between the two countries contin-

ues to increase; Ethiopia, Sudan, and Yemen have formed a loose

regional cooperation.

Kenya

Ethiopia and Kenya have what ofﬁcials of the two countries call

“excellent bilateral relations” and one of the more peaceful borders

in Africa. The two countries have a long-standing mutual defense

pact, signed in 1964 and renewed since then. Ethiopia and Kenya

established agreements for infrastructure improvements that allow

Ethiopia greater access to Kenya’s ports in the future.

International Organizations

Ethiopia participates in the following select list of international

organizations:

■ United Nations

■ African Union

■ Inter governmental Authority on Development

■ Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa

■ New Partnership for Africa’s Development

Non-governmental Organizations

Ethiopia heavily restricts the activities of many NGOs. Its Charities

and Societies Proclamation prohibits any group receiving at least 10

percent of its funds from abroad from promoting democracy or hu-

man rights, the rights of children, or equality of gender or religion.

Violators could face stiff ﬁnes and sentences of up to 15 years in

prison.

In early 2009, there were 3,000 charities and civil society

groups in Ethiopia, with a combined annual budget of US$1.5 bil-

lion. Most of this funding goes toward promoting open society and

a multiparty democracy. Most Ethiopian NGOs depend on foreign

funding. Ethiopian ofﬁcials say the law is designed to prevent for-

eign interference in the country’s political affairs. NGOs in Ethiopia

include Save the Children/USA, Doctors Without Borders, CARE,

Ethiopian Women Lawyers Association, Organization for Social

Justice in Ethiopia, and the International Red Cross.

Corruption

Corruption is considered severe in Ethiopia, according to the

Transparency International 2008 Corruption Perceptions Index.

After an Ethiopia government study found corruption to be

“ﬂourishing” in areas such as licensing, taxes, procurement, and

the transfer of assets between the public and private sectors, a

Federal Ethics and Anti-Corruption Commission was established

in 2001. By mid-2008, it had pressed charges against 800 indi-

viduals. Among those convicted were high-proﬁle government of-

ﬁcials including a former prime minister, senior bankers, and two

senior judges. Ethiopia has launched an ethics and anti-corruption

campaign and has expressed determination to amend procedures

designed to discourage corruption.

ECONOMY

Economic Statistics

GDP US$76.74 billion (2009 est.)

GDP growth rate 8% (2009 est.)

Per capita GDP US$900 (2009 est.)

Inﬂation rate 11% (2009 est.)

Budget revenues US$4.678 billion (2009 est.)

Budget expenditures US$5.36 billion (2009 est.)

National (external) debt US$4.229 billion (2009 est.)

Unemployment rate N/A

Total value of imports US$7.315 billion (2009 est.)

Import commodities Food and live animals, petroleum

and petroleum products, chemicals,

machinery, motor vehicles, cereals,

textiles

Import partners China: 16.3%; Saudi Arabia: 12%;

India: 8.7%; Italy: 6%; Japan: 4.9%;

United States: 4.5% (2008 est.)

Total value of exports US$1.608 billion (2009 est.)

Export commodities Coffee, khat, gold, leather products,

live animals, oilseeds

Export partners Germany: 11.8%; Saudi Arabia: 8.7%;

Netherlands: 8.6%; United States:

8.1%; Switzerland: 7.7%; Italy: 6.1%

China: 6%; Sudan: 5.5%; Japan: 4.4%

(2008 est.)

Labor force composition Agriculture: 85%; Industry: 5%; Ser-

vices: 10% (2009 est.)

General Description

Ethiopia’s economy relies on agriculture, which accounts for 40

percent of the GDP, 60 percent of exports, and 80 percent of total

employment. Ethiopia is heavily dependent on foreign aid, much

of it food aid, and its abundant natural resources remain unde-

veloped. Coffee is the main crop but has had a lower yield as a

result of recurrent drought. The conﬂict with Eritrea has forced

Ethiopia to export its products through Djibouti and Somaliland

at a higher cost. Lower yield and higher export costs have caused

higher prices for Ethiopian coffee, which has led consumers to

look for alternatives. Ethiopia qualiﬁed as a highly indebted poor

country in 2001, and the International Monetary Fund forgave its

debt in 2005. The state owns all land, which it leases to the tenants.

This has hampered industrial growth because entrepreneurs can-

not use the land as collateral for loans. State ownership of certain

industries has also limited progress.

Economic Aid

Ethiopia’s major bilateral donors are Germany, Italy, Japan,

Netherlands, Sweden, United Kingdom, and the United States.

The European Union, World Bank, World Food Program, and

Workers Processing Coffee Beans

African Development Bank top the list of major multilateral

donors. Emergency assistance and social infrastructure sectors

are receiving aid at an increasing rate, while aid for other sec-

tors is decreasing.

Ethiopia receives more than US$1.1 billion in aid annually. The

amount of ODA has risen sharply from an average of US$500 mil-

lion per year in the mid-1990s to more than US$1 billion per year.

Between 2001 and 2006, ODA averaged US$932.5 million per

year, of which bilateral donors contributed an average of US$271

million per year (30 percent). Multilateral donors are still the prin-

cipal providers of external assistance, contributing US$661.6 mil-

lion (70 percent) of total ODA to Ethiopia. Five main donors sup-

port Ethiopia’s energy sector: World Bank, European Investment

Bank, African Development Bank, China, and Italy.

Banking Services

Ethiopia’s banking sector is closed to foreign participation and is

dominated by one large state-owned bank: the Commercial Bank

of Ethiopia. There were three state-owned banks and six private

banks in 2004.

The National Bank of Ethiopia (NBE) is the cen-

tral bank and is responsible for foreign exchange control. Foreign

exchange permits from the NBE are required for all imports.

Banks offer four major services: credit facility, saving scheme,

international banking, and fund transfer. Some banks provide

MasterCards and Visa cards. Credit lines include overdraft options,

term loans, letters of credit, merchandise loans, and personal loans.

Other services include demand and saving deposits. Banks might

also provide international banking services such as letters of credit,

purchasing of outward bills, purchasing and selling of foreign cur-

rency, receiving and transferring foreign currency payment, and in-

coming and outgoing international letters of guarantee.

Natural Resources

Ethiopia has abundant natural resources, most of which have

not been exploited. Initial explorations have revealed deposits

of gold, platinum, tantalite, sodium, and phosphate. Oil explo-

ration is ongoing across the country, but there is no production.

Ethiopia also has water resources with great hydroelectric poten-

tial. Ethiopia is taking steps to attract foreign investment in its oil

and water resources.

Ethiopia has signiﬁcant water quality problems. Domestic, in-

dustrial, commercial, and agricultural waste contribute to water

quality problems. Factories dump untreated efﬂuents into nearby

watercourses and urban streams. Surface waters are contaminated

with human waste. Runoff of fertilizers and pesticides damages

aquatic life and ecosystems.

The main sources of air pollution in urban areas are trafﬁc and

fuel combustion, which cause pollutants including sulfur dioxide,

nitrogen dioxides, particulates, and lead. There may be localized

areas of concern close to some large industries, which contribute

pollutants such as preservatives, bleaches, dyes, wastewater, saw-

dust, chemicals, and solvents. No information is available regard-

ing the status of air quality in Ethiopia.

Ethiopia also has soil degradation problems, resulting from erosion,

farming, deforestation, mining, leaching, and dumping of chemicals.

Industry

Ethiopia’s industries include agriculture, mining, textiles, leather,

and metals engineering. Agriculture is the mainstay of Ethiopia’s

economy and accounts for more than 40 percent of the GDP, 90

percent of total foreign exchange earnings, and 80 to 85 percent

of employment. The agriculture industry consists mainly of small

farms, which produce nearly 95 percent of Ethiopia’s crops. Major

crops include coffee; cereals; pulses, such as peas, beans, or len-

tils; and oilseeds. Teff, wheat, barley, maize, and sorghum account

for nearly 90 percent of total crop production; 81 percent of the

land used for crop production is dedicated to these items.

Mining

Ethiopia is rich in gold, tantalum, soda ash, potash, nickel, and

platinum. However, private investment in mining was not allowed

until after 1991. The sector remains undeveloped and contributes

less than 3 percent to the economy. Gold is the main commodity,

and the Lege Dembi gold mine (owned by Saudi Arabia) is the

only large-scale mining operation.

Oil and gas exploration is under way throughout the country; how-

ever, there is no production. Substantial gas discoveries have been

made at Calub (76 billion cubic meters) and Hilala (42 billion cu-

bic meters) in the Ogaden Basin in the eastern part of the country.

The Ministry of Mines and Energy is responsible for developing

the mineral sector. Processing of license applications, regulation

of mineral operations, and promotion of investment in the mineral

sector are carried out through the ministry’s Mineral Operations

Department. Regional governments are responsible for the licens-

ing and administration of small-scale mining, exploration, and

prospecting operations conducted by local investors.

Manufacturing

The manufacturing sector accounts for less than 4 percent of the

GDP. Food, beverages, and tobacco are the most important com-

modities, followed by metals, leather, chemicals, minerals, paper

and printing, and furniture and wood. The food, beverage, and

tobacco subsector consists of ﬂour mills, bakeries, pasta facto-

ries, edible-oil mills, and sugar factories. The beverage industry

includes breweries, soft-drink plants, mineral-water plants, dis-

tilleries, and wineries. Most manufacturing is concentrated in

the southern suburbs of Addis Ababa and in Dire Dawa. There is

one cigarette factory in Addis Ababa, and four sugar reﬁneries at

Wonji, Shoa, Metahara, and Fincha.

The metals and engineering sector is a small part of Ethiopia’s

manufacturing sector. Products include galvanized rooﬁng sheets,

pipes, nails, window and door frames, hand tools, and other metal

products. There are also truck and tractor assembly plants and an

engineering complex that makes industrial spare parts, hand tools,

and cutlery.

Leather and Textiles

The textile and garment sector includes textile mills, spinning

mills, thread factories, sack factories, and large-scale garment

factories. Rapid growth in this industry is possible because of the

availability of raw cotton and other natural ﬁbers. Cotton is pro-

duced on a large scale in the Awash Valley, which has more than

50,000 hectares (123,553 acres) under cultivation. There is huge

potential for the expansion of cotton cultivation, particularly in the

Omo-Gibe, Wabe Shebelle, Baro-Akobo, Blue Nile, and Tekeze

River basins. A 2004 statistical abstract reported that Ethiopia has

36 textile manufacturers employing more than 22,000 people total.

Ethiopia has the largest livestock population in Africa and a well-

established leather industry that includes tanneries and footwear

factories. Ethiopia exports most of its leather, and the leather mar-

ket in Ethiopia is primarily domestic shoe manufacturing. The sec-

tor contributes 16 percent to the GDP in the form of processed and

semi-processed hides and skins. Some products, such as Ethiopian

Highland sheepskin (internationally renowned as a material used

to make gloves), are sought for their quality. Exports include

sheepskin, goatskin, cowhide, and various leather products.

Other Industries

The large, modern Mugher cement plant is 155 kilometers (96

miles) west of Addis Ababa. Ethiopia also produces tableware,

wall tiles, glass, clay bricks, and lime. Ethiopia’s paper industry

produces wrapping paper, stationery, and packing material.

Agriculture

Most Ethiopians are subsistence farmers whose use of old farming

techniques makes their land vulnerable to the effects of recurrent

drought. Modern innovations such as fertilizer, improved irriga-

tion, and hybrid seeds are needed to improve productivity.

Ethiopia is the tenth-largest livestock producer in the world and

the largest in Africa, with an estimated 78 million cattle, sheep,

and goats. The leather industry is the second-greatest contributor

of export earnings, after coffee. The abundant livestock resource

has the potential to become a major source of revenue. Ethiopia

produces two of the world’s ﬁnest and most-sought-after varieties

of leather, and its goatskins are widely recognized in international

markets for making high-quality suede for fashion products.

Khat, a chewable leaf with a mild narcotic effect, is legal in

Ethiopia. The cultivation of khat is ﬁnancially attractive, and there

is an increasing trend in cultivation and consumption of khat.

Foreign Investment

Ethiopia had US$265 million in foreign direct investment inﬂows

in 2005, US$545 million in 2006, and an estimated US$254 mil-

lion in 2007. Foreign investment in 2007 created an estimated

102,000 permanent jobs and 130,350 temporary jobs.

Of the US$16 billion dollars worth of new investments licensed in

Ethiopia in 2008, US$10 billion came from foreign investors inter-

ested in agriculture, industry, tourism, and construction.

However,

only 20 percent of the investors began operations. Agriculture

is Ethiopia’s largest economic sector, and foreign investment in

agro-industries is strongly encouraged through incentives includ-

ing customs exemptions, income tax holidays, exemption from

taxes on remittance of capital, and loss carry forward.

Ethiopia has bilateral investment agreements and treaties with the

at least 18 countries, and many more are considering investment

opportunities there.

China plans to invest CNY 5 billion (US$713 million) to build

Ethiopia’s ﬁrst industrial park at Dukem, 37 kilometers (23

miles) east of Addis Ababa, which will house 80 Chinese com-

panies involved in textiles, leather, and the manufacturing of

construction equipment.

Economic Outlook

Most of Ethiopia’s natural

resources are undeveloped.

Agriculture dominates the

economy, accounting for more

than 40 percent of Ethiopia’s

GDP. The government has pro-

vided some incentives aimed

Khat

at developing agro-industry. Foreign investment is low but grow-

ing. The low amount is due in part to a ban on foreign participa-

tion in banking and a lack of private land ownership in Ethiopia.

Pervasive corruption has also discouraged investment and en-

trepreneurial activity. Despite global recession in the late 2000s

Ethiopia’s GDP increased by nearly 7 percent.

THREAT

Crime

Ethiopia has a high crime rate. Crime in Addis Ababa and most

other large cities in Ethiopia is restricted to burglaries, robberies,

and pocket picking of foreigners, in which the use of ﬁrearms is

rare. Criminals target areas with poor security, such as closed busi-

nesses, vacant residences, and parked vehicles. The following pre-

cautions are recommended to avoid becoming a victim of crime:

■ Carry only what is needed; do not walk streets at night or

alone, and do not use public transportation, including taxis

and buses

■ Stay alert at all times, including when sitting in a parked ve-

hicle; keep car windows and doors locked and valuables out

of sight/reach

■ Never leave valuables unattended

■ Avoid large unsecured venues/events

■ Avoid travel on rural roads and after dark

Travel Security

Motor vehicle accidents are common in Ethiopia. High speeds,

poor road conditions, disregard for right-of-way, and wandering

livestock contribute to accidents. Broken-down vehicles are of-

ten left on the side of the road with no hazard warnings. Drivers

may be forced off the road by oncoming trafﬁc. Drivers of small,

overloaded trucks have caused many accidents as a result of high

speeds and fatigue.

Traveling outside and between cities at night is strongly discour-

aged. Long-range travel should be conducted in convoys of two

or more vehicles, and a check-in procedure should be followed.

Travelers should also make sure that their vehicles are in good con-

dition and that adequate fuel is available. Carrying extra food, wa-

ter, spare parts, a ﬁrst-aid kit, and a satellite phone is recommended.

Political violence is prevalent along border regions, and travel to the

following areas is discouraged: east of Adigrat (Ethiopia) to Bure

(Ethiopia) and Djibouti border; west of Adigrat to the Ethiopia-

Sudan border; and the Ogaden and Somalia border region.

Illegal Drugs

Ethiopia does not have a major role in the production, trafﬁcking,

or consumption of illicit narcotics or precursor chemicals. However,

Ethiopia is located along a major narcotics transit route between the

United Arab Emirates and West Africa. Drug trafﬁckers smuggle

heroin through Ethiopia for markets in West Africa, Europe, and

the United States. Ethiopia’s road and rail transport connections

with neighboring countries and long, unpatrolled borders with all

ﬁve of its neighboring make it a prime target for drug trafﬁcking.

Nigerian and Ghanian trafﬁckers use Ethiopia as a transit point on

an increasing but limited basis. Drug seizures from 1998 to date

indicate an increase in the trafﬁcking of heroin to East African

countries from Pakistan, Thailand, and India. Increased seizures of

heroin with Nigerian connections bound for Uganda, Tanzania, and

Kenya through Ethiopia have also been noted.

Although cannabis is grown throughout Ethiopia, it is mostly

used in rural areas. Farmers cultivate cannabis illicitly in the

Shashamane and Wondo Guenet Districts, often with the help of

the local Rastafarian community. The only domestic program to

combat narcotics in Ethiopia is the Illicit Drug Control Service

(IDCS), which has both an enforcement and limited drug educa-

tion role. The IDCS, formerly the Ethiopian Counter Narcotics

Unit, has a small staff and limited training and equipment, and

would like to partner with the international community to improve

its capabilities. The Counter-Narcotics Division of the IDCS was

formed in 1993, and it coordinates drug enforcement in all regions

of the country. The IDCS has an interdiction team at the interna-

tional airport in Addis Ababa.

Foreign Intelligence Services

Under Article 51 of Ethiopia’s constitution, the federal government

is charged with establishing and administering national defense and

public security forces as well as a federal police force. The National

Intelligence and Security Service (NISS, formerly known as SIRA)

has broad authority for intelligence, border security, criminal inves-

tigation, and overall counterterrorism management. Its combined

duties are equivalent to those of the Central Intelligence Agency,

Federal Bureau of Investigation, Department of Homeland Security,

State and Consular Affairs, and the Secret Service.

The federal police force is controlled by the Federal Police

Commission, which falls under the Ministry of Federal Affairs.

Regional police forces are under the control of a regional police

commission. The police force is responsible for maintaining in-

ternal security and combating terrorism. The Anti-Terrorism Task

Force operates in cooperation with the NISS. The focus is on

Islamist extremists and other dissidents. Border security is also the

responsibility of the federal police as established by Proclamation

No. 207, issued in 2000. The federal police force has the duty and

power to safeguard the security of borders, airports, railway lines

and terminals, mining areas, and vital federal buildings.

Threat to U.S. Personnel

Driving in Ethiopia is dangerous; therefore, visitors are advised to

hire drivers. Although reckless driving is certainly a cause of many

trafﬁc fatalities, careless pedestrians are a more signiﬁcant cause of

accidents in Ethiopia. It is not unusual for pedestrians in Ethiopia

to walk into trafﬁc without looking. Any foreigner driving a vehi-

cle that hits an Ethiopian is held responsible regardless of fault and

should seek assistance from someone who understands Ethiopia’s

laws and customs and can discuss compensation. These situations

are best handled by representatives from the U.S. Embassy.

ARMED FORCES

The Ethiopian National Defense Force (ENDF) includes ground

and air elements. In 2007, rough estimates placed the ENDF at

around 200,000 personnel. Behind Eritrea, the ENDF is the sec-

ond largest military in sub-Saharan Africa and the 29

largest in

the world. Tigray ofﬁcers who are members or sympathizers of

the Tigrayan People’s Liberation Front, the governing party in

Ethiopia, dominate ENDF leadership positions. General ofﬁcer

promotions occur between August and September and are autho-

rized by the prime minister of Ethiopia.

Army

Mission

The Ethiopia Army defends Ethiopia’s sovereignty and main-

tains Ethiopia’s territorial integrity. It assists paramilitary forces

as necessary against domestic threats and contributes to national

development. The army has participated in several international

peacekeeping missions.

Organization

The ENDF chief of staff controls four army regional commands

and several independent units. There is no army headquarters.

Infantry and mechanized divisions are assigned to the regional

commands based on need. Each division has specialized regi-

ments that allow it to ﬁght as a combined-arms unit. The army also

has one commando division whose soldiers are airborne qualiﬁed.

Facilities

The ENDF headquarters is in Addis Ababa. Major army bases are

in Gonder, Inda Silase, Mekele, Harer, Awash, Jijiga, and Gode.

Training bases are in Bilate and Hurso.

Key Defense Personnel

Chief of Staff Armed Forces

(Tigray, rank as of 2007)

Gen Samora Yenus

Mohamedfereji

Security Advisor to President

and Chief of Armed Forces

Mr. Abbat Tsahay

Commander, Central

Regional Command

LtGen Abebaw Tadesse Asres

Commander, Northern

Regional Command

LtGen Se’are Mekonnen Yimer

Commander, Western

Regional Command

MajGen Abreha Woldemariam

Genzebu

Personnel

The Ethiopian Army has demobilized from a wartime high of

350,000 soldiers in 2000 to an estimated 180,000. The Ethiopian

National Reserve Force could be mobilized as necessary to in-

crease army strength.

Service in the army is voluntary. Recruits must be 18 years old

and HIV/AIDS free. The military is ethnically diverse, but Tigray

dominate the senior leadership positions.

Enlisted

Officers

Private 1st

Class

Lance

Corporal

Corporal Sergeant

Master

Sergeant

Staff

Sergeant

Junior

Lieutenant

Senior

Lieutenant

Captain

Lieutenant

Colonel

Brigadier

General

Major

General

Lieutenant

General

U.S. Equivalent

Major

Officers

Sergeant

Major

Army Ranks

100

Training

The ENDF maintains a sophis-

ticated military training system

as compared to other African

nations. The army conducts

basic and ofﬁcer training and

advanced specialty courses.

Individual training continues

throughout a soldier’s career.

Tactical units conduct com-

bined-arms collective training.

Capabilities

The ENDF derives its doctrine

from its roots as a guerrilla

force, Soviet doctrine used by

forces of the former Derg, and

training received from Western

armies. The Ethiopian Army operates as a combined-arms force.

Armor and infantry operate together, with armor often supporting

infantry rather than leading the attack. Air defense, engineer, and

logistic support units are integrated in every maneuver division.

Ethiopia’s inventory of air defense artillery consists exclusively of

ﬁrst- and second-generation antiaircraft guns of Soviet design and

origin. These weapons are only effective against slow, non-ma-

neuvering, and low-ﬂying aircraft not employing electronic-attack

systems and operating in daylight.

Disposition

Most Ethiopian Army units have had troops deployed along the

Ethiopia-Eritrea border since the 1998–2000 border war. In late

Army Uniform

101

2006, the ENDF intervened in Somalia to protect the Transitional

Federal Government from Islamic militias, but those ENDF forces

Ethiopian Troops

102

have returned to Ethiopia. The ENDF is also conducting a coun-

terinsurgency campaign in the Ogaden region.

Ethiopia will provide forces for the African Union’s (AU’s) African

Standby Force East Brigade. The brigade will participate in peace-

keeping operations and provide the AU a rapid intervention capabil-

ity as one of ﬁve regional brigades on the African continent. The

brigade is scheduled to reach initial operational capability by 2010.

Uniforms

The Ethiopian Army wears green camouﬂage uniforms similar to

the old woodlands of the U.S. military.

Equipment

Armor

Tanks

Type Quantity

T-54/55 200

T-55AM 30

T-62 50

Reconnaissance

Type Quantity

BRDM-1/BRDM-2 90

Infantry

APCs

Type Quantity

BMP-1 90

BTR-60 50

BTR-152 20

103

Artillery

Towed Artillery

Type Quantity

85-mm D-44 20

122-mm D-30 200

122-mm M-30 50

130-mm M-46 40

Self-Propelled Artillery

Type Quantity

152-mm 2S19 10

Mortars

Type Quantity

120-mm M-38/43 Unknown

82-mm M-37 Unknown

60-mm Type 63-1 Unknown

Multiple Rocket Launchers

Type Quantity

122-mm BM-21

107-mm Type-63 Unknown

Antitank Weapons

Type Quantity

AT-3 SAGGER

100

AT-4 SPIGOT

76-mm ZIS-3 (M1942) Unknown

82-mm B-10 recoilless riﬂe Unknown

104

Type Quantity

107-mm B-11 recoilless riﬂe Unknown

73-mm RPG-7 Unknown

Air Defense

Type Quantity

23-mm ZU-23 Unknown

23-mm ZSU-23-4 (SPAAG) Unknown

37-mm M-1939 Unknown

57-mm S-60 AA guns Unknown

SA-2 SAM Unknown

SA-3 SAM Unknown

SA-7 MANPAD Unknown

SA-9 Mobile SAM Unknown

Air Force

Ethiopia’s air force has an 80-year history that began in 1929. In

1922, after watching an air show, Emperor Haile Selassie decided

to establish an Ethiopian air military. He hired black U.S. pilots,

like Col John Robinson, to train Ethiopian pilots. Col Robinson

served as the ﬁrst commanding ofﬁcer of the Ethiopian Air Force,

despite being a U.S. citizen. The Su-27, used extensively during the

1998 conﬂict, has developed into an iconic symbol of Ethiopia’s

success against the Eritreans during that conﬂict.

Mission

The mission of the air force is to protect Ethiopia’s airspace and

provide close combat support to the ground troops.

Personnel

Commander, Air Force MajGen Molla Hailemariam

105

Most of the pilots in Ethiopia’s air force have been foreigners. In

1998, before the onset of the Eritrea-Ethiopia border war, Ethiopia

had 20 inexperienced combat ﬁghters. During the war, the country

hired mercenaries from Ukraine and Russia.

Training

Ethiopia still relies on foreign training for its pilots. It has received

much of this training from Russia.

Enlisted

Officers

Private 1st

Class

Lance

Corporal

Corporal Sergeant

Master

Sergeant

Staff

Sergeant

Junior

Lieutenant

Senior

Lieutenant

Captain

Lieutenant

Colonel

Brigadier

General

Major

General

Lieutenant

General

U.S. Equivalent

Major

Officers

Sergeant

Major

Air Force Ranks

106

Capabilities

Given its dependence on foreign mercenaries and training, the

Ethiopian Air Force is extremely limited in its indigenous capabilities.

Equipment

Type Role

Aermacchi SF-260 Trainer

Aero L-39 Albatros Trainer

Aeropatial SA 316 Alouette III Utility helicopter

Antonov An-12 Tactical transport

DHC-5 Buffalo Tactical transport

DHC-6 Twin Otter Tactical transport

Antonov An-24 Tactical transport

Antonov An-26 Tactical transport

Lockheed C-130 Tactical transport

MiG-21 Fighter

MiG-23 Fighter

Mi-6 Transport helicopter

Mi-8 Transport helicopter

Mi-14 Antisubmarine helicopter

Mi-24 Attack helicopter

Su-27 Fighter

Su-25 Fighter

Y-12 VIP

Yak-40 Codling VIP

Domestic Security Forces

The Agazi is a commando division in the ENDF and has been

used in conjunction with both the military and police forces for

various missions.

107

National Police

Mission

The Ethiopian Federal Police have been used to hunt bandits; ﬁght

insurgents; investigate crimes against the state, such as terrorism;

and quell riots.

Organization

The Ethiopian Federal Police Commission falls under the minister

of federal affairs.

Personnel

The director of the federal police is Wokneh Gebeyehu.

Ethiopian Militias

108

Capabilities

In 2009, the federal police reportedly secured the Djibouti-Addis

Ababa road from banditry and worked with the military to help

quell violence in western and southern Ethiopia.

Disposition

The newly constructed 10-story headquarters for the federal po-

lice is in Addis Ababa near Mexico Square.

Uniforms

The federal police wear blue camouﬂage uniforms.

Weapons of Mass Destruction

Ethiopia does not have WMD capabilities and has never shown

any interest in acquiring them.

A-1

APPENDIX A:

EQUIPMENT RECOGNITION

ARMOR

T-54/55

Crew

Armament

1 x 100-mm D10T2S gun w/34 rds

1 x 7.62-mm SMGT w/3,500 rds

1 x 12.-7-mm DShK w/500 rds

Maximum Speed

50 km/h

Maximum Range

400 km (600 km w/auxillary tanks)

Maximum Rate of Fire

7 rds stationary; 4 if moving

Fuel Capacity

960 liters

Combat Weight

36,000 kg

Length x Width x Height

9.0 m x 3.27 m x 2.41 m

Night Vision/NBC Capable

yes / yes

Fording / Gradient

1.4 m / 60 percent

Vertical Obstacle

0.8 m

Trench

2.7 m

Comments: The T-55 is an improved version of the T-54. The ﬁre control system is

unchanged as is the armor protection. Engine horsepower was increased slightly but

the transmission is the same. The T-55 has a welded steel hull. Both hull front and turret

front have 200mm protection level against both shape-charge and KE threats.

A-2

T-62

Crew

Armament

1 x 115-mm 2A20 gun w/40 rds Smooth Bore

1 x 7.62-mm PKT MG w/2,500 rds APT

1x 12.7-mm Turret loader exposed 500rds Ball, AP, and API

Maximum Speed

50 km/h

Maximum Range

650.0 km (450 km integral tanks)

Fuel Capacity

960 liters

Combat Weight

37.6 Tonnes

Length

9.33 m

Width

3.3 m

Height

2.83 m

Night Vision

yes

NBC

yes

Fording

1.4 m 5.0 w/snorkel

Gradient

60 percent

Vertical Obstacle

0.8 m

Trench

2.85 m

Comment: The T-62 uses many components from the T-55 but is longer and wider

with a larger turret diameter. The ﬁre control is slightly more advanced than the T-55.

A-3

BRDM-2

Crew/Passengers

Type

4 x 4

Armament

1 x 14.5-mm KPVT w/500 rds

1 x 7.62-mm PKVT w/2000-rds

Maximum Speed

100 km/h

Maximum Range

750 km

Fuel Capacity

290 liters

Combat Weight

7 Tonnes

Length

5.70 m

Width

2.26 m

Height

2.39 m

Night Vision

yes

NBC

yes

Fording

amphibious

Gradient

60 percent

Vertical Obstacle

0.4 m

Trench

1.60 m

A-4

BMP-1

Crew/Passengers

3 + 8

Type

tracked

Armament

1 x 73-mm 2A28 low velocity gun w/40 rds

1 x 7.62-mm PKT MG coaxial w/1,800 rds

4 x Stagger ATGM

Maximum Speed

60 km/h

Maximum Range

600 km

Fuel Capacity

460 liters

Combat Weight

13.6 Tonnes

Length

6.74 m

Width

2.94 m

Height

2.15 m

Night Vision

Yes

NBC

Yes

Fording

amphibious

Gradient

60 percent

Vertical Obstacle

0.8 m

Trench

2.0 m

A-5

BTR-60PB

Crew/Passengers

2 + 8

Type

8 x 8

Armament

14.5 KPVT (Tank Heavy Machine Gun) w/ 500 rds

1 x 7.62-mm PKT MG w/2,000 rds

Maximum Speed

80 km/h

Maximum Range

500 km

Fuel Capacity

290 liters

Combat Weight

10.3 Tonnes

Length

7.22 m

Width

2.82 m

Height

2.70 m

Night Vision

yes

NBC

yes

Fording

amphibious

Gradient

60 percent

Vertical Obstacle

0.4 m

Trench

2 m

Comment: The BTR-60PB is the second upgrade to the BTR-60 series APC.Its

predecessors were the open-toped BTR-60P and the armor-roofed BTR-60A The

BTR-60PB’s major improvement is the addition of an armored turret armed with

coaxially-mounted 14.5 and 7.62-mm machineguns.

A-6

BTR-152

Crew/Passengers

1 + 18

Type

6 x 6

Armament

1 x 7.62-mm SGMB MG w/1,250 rds

1 x 12.7 DShKM MG w/650 rds

Maximum Range

780 km

Maximum Speed

65 km/h

Fuel Capacity

300 l

Combat Weight

8.95 Tonnes

Length

6.83 m

Width

2.32 m

Height

2.04 m

Night Vision

NBC

Fording

0.8 m

Gradient

60 percent

Vertical Obstacle

0.6 m

Trench

0.80 m

A-7

ARTILLERY

122-mm D-30

Crew

Maximum Range

15,300 m (conventional)

Ammunition

122-mm HE Various

Range Direct

1,000 m

Range Minimum-Indirect Fire

4,000 m

Rate of Fire

6 rds/min

Combat Weight

3,210 kg

Length

5.4 m

Width

1.95 m

Height

1.66 m

Prime Mover

6 x 6 truck

A-8

130-mm M-46

Crew

Ammunition

Soviet 130-mm HE

Range Direct

1,170 m

Range Minimum-Indirect Fire

5.400 m

Maximum Range

27,150 m (conventional)

31,000 m (Using Yugo M79)

Rate of Fire

6 rds/min

Travel Weight

8,450 kg

Length

11,730 mm

Width

2,450 mm

Height

2,550 mm

Prime Mover

6 x 6 truck

A-9

122-mm Towed Howitzer M-30 (M-1938), M30M

Crew; Section Size

5; 6

Gun Caliber

121.9 mm x 23.0

Ammunition

HE-frag., ﬂechette, illumination, smoke

Range

Direct Fire

660 m

Indirect Fire

1,000 to 11,800 m

Rate of Fire

Burst

6 rounds per minute

Normal

3 rounds per minute

Sustained

2 rounds per minute

Traverse Limit, Left and Right

24 degrees, each direction

Elevation Limit

–3 to +64 degrees

Emplacement Time

1 to 2 minutes

Displacement Time

1 minute

Traveling Weight

2,450 kg

Length x Width x Height

5.93 x 1.98 x 1.82 m, travel mode

A-10

120-mm Mortar M-38/43

Crew

Range

450 to 5,700 m

Rate of Fire

Burst

9 rounds/minute

Normal

5 rounds/minute

Sustained

4 rounds/minute

Traverse Limits, Left or Right

3.0 degrees (M-38); 4.0 degrees (M-43)

Elevation Limits

+45 to +80 degrees

Empty Weight

270 kg

Travel Length x Width x Height

1.854 m

A-11

82-mm Mortar M-37 (M-1937)

Crew

Caliber

85 mm

Ammunition

HE-frag., illumination, smoke

Range

85 to 3,040 m

Rate of Fire

Burst

30 rounds per minute

Normal

25 rounds per minute

Sustained

20 rounds per minute

Traverse Limits

3 degrees left or right

Elevation Limits

45 to 85 degrees

Weight Empty

56 kg

Tube Length

1,219 mm

NOTE: may be traversed 30 degrees left or right by moving the bipod.

A-12

60-mm Manportable Mortar Type 63-1

Ammunition

60.75-mm HE-frag., smoke, illumination

Range

95 to 1,550 m

Burst Rate of Fire

30 to 35 rounds per minute

Weight Empty

12 kg

A-13

122-mm BM-21 MRL

Crew

Armament

40 x 122-mm rockets

Rate of Fire

36 rds/20 sec

Max Range

20,380 m

Reload Time

7 min

Maximum Speed

80 km/h

Maximum Range

525 km

Fuel Capacity

340 liters

Combat Weight

10,500 kg

Length

6.9 m

Width

2.5 m

Height

2.48 m

A-14

ANTIARMOR

85-mm Towed Antitank Gun D-44

Crew

6 8

Maximum Range

15,650 m

Ammunition

Soviet 85-mm O 365 Frag HE

Rate of Fire

15 20 rds/min

Range Direct

800 m

Range Minimum-Indirect Fire

2,500 m

Range Conventional

15,820 m

Emplacement/Displacement

2 mins

Combat Weight

1,750 kg

Length

8.34 m

Width

1.73 m

Height

1.42 m

Prime Mover

4 x 4 truck

A-15

76-mm Field Gun ZIS-3 (M1942)

Crew; Section Size

5; 6

Caliber

76.2 mm x 41.6

Range

Direct Fire

820 m

Indirect Fire

1,500 to 13,290 m

Rate of Fire

Burst

25 rounds/minute

Normal

15 rounds/minute

Sustained

8 rounds/minute

Traverse Limits

27 degrees left or right

Elevation Limits

–5 to +37 degrees

Travel Weight

1,116 kg

Travel Length x Width x Height

6.1 x 1.6 x 1.4 m

Emplacement/Displacement Time

1 minute

A-16

Malyutka 9K11 ATGM (AT-3 Sagger)

Guidance

MCLOS Wire Link

Warhead Type

Unitary Shape Charge

Range (Effective)

500-3,000 m

Time Of Flight

25.0 seconds

Missile Weight

11.3 kg

Length

864mm

Diameter

125mm

RHA Penetration

<400mm

Note: The AT-3 is both a MCLOS and a SACLOS-guided ATGM that can be ﬁred from

a variety of launch platforms. The MCLOS AT-3 includes the man-portable (suitcase)

and light tank-mounted versions. The AT-3 may be deployed in very limited numbers

on helicopters. Dedicated ATGM vehicles are likely to be equipped with SACLOS AT-3

systems. The missile has a 3,000 meter range and a wire command link. The AT-3’s

armor penetration has been estimated in excess of 400 mm. The Russian name for

the AT-3 is MALYUTKA (Little Baby).Recognition: Short cylindrical body Blunt conical

nose 4 tail ﬁns.

A-17

9K 111 FAGOT ATGM (AT-4 SPIGOT)

Guidance

SACLOS

Warhead Type

Unitary Shape Charge

Range (Effective)

70-2,000 (m)

Time of Flight

11.0 seconds

Missile Weight

7.3kg

Length

863mm

Diameter

119mm

RHA Penetration

<425mm

A-18

RPG-7

Type

Shoulder-ﬁred rocket-propelled grenade launcher

Caliber

Launcher

40.0 mm

Grenade

85 mm

Effective Range

Moving Target

330 m

Stationary Target

500 m

Maximum Range (Self Destruct)

Approximately 950 m (4.5 seconds after launch)

Rate of Fire

4 to 6 rounds/minute

Grenade Types

HEAT, tandem, thermobaric, shaped-charge, HE-

frag, and incendiary (grenades consist of warhead

and two-stage rocket motor)

Armor Penetration

260 mm or greater (depending on grenade)

Launcher Length

950 mm

A-19

AIR DEFENSE

Twin 23 mm Automatic Antiaircraft Gun ZU-23

Tactical AA Range

2,500 meters

Max Vertical Range

5,100 meters

Max Horizontal Range

7,000 meters

Rate of ﬁre

800-1,000 rd/min/barrel

Azimuth limits

Unlimited

Elevation limits

-10 to 90 degrees

Fire control

Optical mechanical computing sight

Ammunition

HEI, HEI-T, API-T, TP (23-by-152 mm)

Self-destruct time

Approx 5 to 12 seconds

Self-destruct range

Approx 3,800 meters

Length

4,600 mm

Width

1,860 mm

Height

1,280 mm (ﬁring mode) / 2,070 mm (travel mode)

Weight

950 kilograms

A-20

ZSU-23-4 (23 mm) SPAAG

Crew

Caliber

23.0 x 152B mm

Ammunition

API-T, HEI, HEI-T

Ranges

Tactical Antiaircraft

2,500 m

Maximum Vertical

5,000 m

Maximum Horizontal

7,000 m

Rate of Fire

850 to 1,000 rounds/minute per barrel

Traverse Limits; Rate

Unlimited; 70 degrees/second

Elevation Limits; Rate

–4 to +85 degrees; 60 degrees/second

Weight

20,500 kg

Length x Width x Height

6.54 x 3.13 x 2.58 m

Platform

GM575

NOTE: Height with radar dome is 3.57 meters.

A-21

M1939 AA Gun/Type 55 AA Gun

Crew

7 to 8

Ammunition

FRAG-T, AP-T

Gun Caliber

37mm x 5 rnd clip

Tactical AA Range

2,500/4,000m

Types of Fire Control

optical mechanical/radar

Type of Feed

clip (5 rnds)

Rate of Fire

160 to 180 rds/min

Elevation Limits

-5 to 85 deg

Traverse Limits

360 deg

RHA Penetration @ 1,000 Meters

38mm

Length

5.94m

Width

1.90m

Height

2.08m

Weight

2,353kg

A-22

S-60

Type

57 mm automatic AA gun

Tactical AA range

4,000 meters without radar, 6,500 meters with radar

Rate of ﬁre

105-120 rds per minute

Azimuth

Unlimited

Elevation

-4 to 87 degrees

Fire control

Optical mechanical computing sight, radar

Ammunition

HEI-T (57-by-348 mm), APC-T

Self destruct time

12 to 18 seconds

Self destruct range

6,900 - 7,400 meters

Note: Manufactured on a 4 wheeled towed carriage, Chinese variant is the Type 59.

A-23

SA-2

Range

43 kilometers

Warhead

190 kilograms, HE, FRAG

Guidance

Command RF from FAN SONG

Fuzing

Proximity, command

Missle Length

10.7 m

MIssile Diameter

5 m (booster), 65 m (ﬁns)

Missile Range

43-55 km

Velocity

Mach 4.0

Note: Associated radars include FAN SONG, SPOON REST, SIDE NET. 1 or 3

missiles launched at 6 second intervals against 1 target. This missile has also been

used in surface-to-surface mode.

A-24

SA-3 GOA

Maximum Effective Range

32 kilometers

Maximum Effective Altitude

20 kilometers

Warhead

HE 60kg ; 73 kg, HE FRAG

Fuze

Proximity doppler radar; Proximity RF, command

Kill Radius

12.5 m

Missile Length

6.1 m

Missile Diameter

.55 m (booster), 37 m (ﬁns)

Missile Range

25 km

Guidance

Command RF from LOW BLOW

Velocity

Mach 3.5

A-25

SA-7

Type

Low altitude solid fuel booster and sustainer

Gross weight(kilograms)

9.2

Length (meters)

1.30

Diameter (meters)

0.072

Max Range (kilometers)

3.6 (SA-7), 4.2 (SA-7b and SA-7c)

Max Effective Altitude (meters)

2,000 (SA-7), 2,300 (SA-7b and SA-7c)

Warhead

1.5 kilograms HE with contact and graze fuzing

Guidance

Passive IR

Propulsion

Two-stage solid rocket

Launcher weight

4.17 kilograms (SA-7) or 4.95 kilograms (SA-7b

and SA-7c)

Note: The SA-7b is an updated variant of the SA-7 with a more sophisticated seeker

to exclude spurious and countermeasure heat source and an improved warhead. The

SA-7c was developed in the mid-1970s and has an improved grip stock and a more

sophisticated RF detector. The SA-7 is the Strela-2 or Grail Mod 0. The SA-7b is the

Strela-2M or the Grail Mod 1. The SA-7c has the NATO designation Grail Mod 2 and

the Russian military designation is the improved Strela-2M. Models were produced by

East Germany, Egypt, Yugoslavia, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Poland,

and Romania.

A-26

SA-9 Gaskin

Range:

6 km

Ceiling:

5 km

Guidance:

IR Seeker

Warhead:

HE, 2.5 kg

Note: Uses passive RF direction ﬁnding system. System is built on a BRDM-2 Chassis,

and has 4 Canisterized missiles mounted on pedestal.

A-27

AIRCRAFT

MiG-21PF, MF, bis (FISHBED-D, -J, -L) Multirole Fighter;

MiG-21U, UM (MONGOL, MONGOL-B) Trainer

Type

Air defense, attack; trainer

Crew

1 (2 for trainers)

Range on Internal Fuel

1,100 km

Maximum Level Speed

2,150 km/h

Design/Practical Ceiling

18,000/15,250 m

Weapons

MiG-21PF

No gun; AAMs, radar-homing missiles, 57-mm

rocket packs, bombs, 240-mm air-to-surface

rockets

MiG-21MF

Twin 23-mm gun, 2x AAMs, and 2x radar-

homing missiles or 2x drop fuel tanks

MiG-21bis

Twin 23-mm gun, AAMs, radar-homing missiles,

57-mm rocket packs, bombs, 240-mm air-to-

surface rockets

Weight Empty

5,843 kg

Maximum Takeoff Weight

9,800 kg (bis 9,500 kg)

Length x Wingspan x Height

15.76 x 7.15 x 4.10 m

A-28

MiG-23MF, MS, BN, ML, UB (FLOGGER-B, -E, -F, -G, -C)

Type

Multirole ﬁghter-interceptor; armed trainer (UB)

Crew

1 (MF, MS, BN, ML) or 2 (UB)

Weapons

23-mm twin gun; various AAMs, air-to-surface

rockets, and bombs

Maximum Speed

2,500 km/h

Range

2,820 km with three external tanks

Service Ceiling

18,500 m

Max Takeoff Weight

17,800 kg (ML)

Length x Wingspan x Height

16.71 x 7.78 to 13.97 x 4.82 m

NOTE: MiG-23MF, MS, ML are interceptors. MiG-23BN is a ground attack variant.

MiG-23UB is a tandem two-seat variant designed for operational training and combat.

A-29

Su-25 (FROGFOOT A); Su-25UBK, -25UTG (FROGFOOT B

Role

Attack ﬁghter; weapons trainer (UB)

Crew

1 or 2 (UBK, UTG)

Armament

Main Gun

Twin 30-mm gun

Under-wing Pylons (x8)

Combination of 32x 57-mm or 20x 80-mm

rocket pods; guided rockets; air-to-surface

missiles; antiship missiles; smart bombs;

conventional bombs; cluster bombs; twin 23-

mm gun pods (guns can pivot downward)

Out-board Pylons

Air-to-air missiles

Range with Standard Load

675 nmi

Maximum Level Speed

526 kn

Service Ceiling

Clean 7,000 m; with maximum weapons 5,000

Maximum Takeoff Weight

17,600 kg

Empty Weight

9,800 kg

Length x Wingspan x Height

15.5 x 14.4 x 4.8 m

NOTE: Su-25UTG is equipped with an arrester hook for aircraft carrier deck landing

training.

A-30

Su-27 (FLANKER B) Air-Superiority Fighter

Su-27UB Armed Trainer (FLANKER C)

Crew

1 (2, tandem, on Su-27UB)

Armament

30 mm GSh-30-1 gun in starboard wingroot

extension; up to 10x AAMs in air combat role

(typically, combination of long- and short-range

semi-active radar-homing and IR-homing); up

to 8x 500-kg bombs, 16x 250-kg bombs, or 4x

launchers for rockets.

Range with Maximum Fuel

2,370 nmi (2,807 nmi with in-ﬂight refueling)

Maximum Level Speed

Approximately 1,350 kn

Service Ceiling

18,000 m

Maximum Payload

Maximum Takeoff Weight

33,000 kg

Length x Wingspan x Height

21.9 x 14.7 x 5.9 m

A-31

C130H

Type

Multimission transport

Crew

4 or 5

Passengers, C-130H/E

92 troops, 64 paratroopers, or 74 litter patients

with 2 attendants

Maximum Cruise Speed

325 kn

Economy Cruise Speed

300 kn

Range, with reserves

With Maximum Payload

2,046 nmi

With Standard Load, Max. Fuel

4,250 nmi

Service Ceiling

10,060 m

Maximum Payload

19,356 kg

Maximum Normal Takeoff Weight

70,310 kg

Maximum Overload Takeoff Weight

79,380 kg

Operating Weight Empty

34,686 kg

Length x Wingspan x Height

29.79 x 40.41 x 11.66 m

A-32

An-12 (CUB A)

Crew; Passengers

5; 90 troops or 60 paratroops

Maximum Cruising Speed

361 kn

Range with Maximum Fuel

3,075 nmi

Weapons

Possible twin 23-mm gun in tail

Maximum Payload

20,000 kg

Takeoff/Landing Run

700/500 m

Service Ceiling

10,200 m

Maximum Takeoff Weight

61,000 kg

Length x Wingspan x Height

33.1 x 38.0 x 10.5 m

A-33

YAK-40 CODLING

Type

Short-haul transport

Crew/Passengers

2/Up to 32

Maximum Level Speed

600 km/h

Range with Maximum Payload

1,800 km

Maximum Payload

2,720 kg

Maximum Takeoff Weight

16,000 kg

Weight Empty

9,010 to 9,400 kg

Length x Wingspan x Height

20.4 x 25.0 x 6.5 m

A-34

L-39ZO, ZA Albatros

Type

Armed Trainer

Crew

Maximum Level Speed

630 km/h

Service Ceiling

7,500 m

Weapons

Centerline pod for 23-mm twin gun; various

bombs, rocket launchers, and AAMs attached to 4

underwing hardpoints

Maximum Underwing Stores

1,000 kg

Maximum Takeoff Weight

5,600 kg

Basic Weight Empty

3,460 kg

Length x Wingspan x Height

12.13 x 9.46 x 4.77 m

A-35

Y-12 Turbo-Panda

Type

Transport

Crew/Passengers

2/16

Maximum Level Speed

300 km/h

Service Ceiling

7,000 m

Maximum Range

1,350 km

Maximum Payload

1,984 kg

Maximum Takeoff Weight

5,670 kg

Basic Weight Empty

3,044 kg

Length x Wingspan x Height

14.86 x 17.23 x 5.57 m

De Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter

Type

Transport

Crew/Passengers

2/20

Maximum Level Speed

338 km/h

Service Ceiling

8,140 m

Maximum Range

1,294 km

Maximum Payload

1,984 kg

Maximum Takeoff Weight

5,670 kg

Basic Weight Empty

3,363 kg

Length x Wingspan x Height

15.77 x 19.81 x 5.94 m

A-37

De Havilland Canada DHC-5 Buffalo

Type

Transport

Crew/Passengers

3/35

Maximum Level Speed

467 km/h

Service Ceiling

9,450 m

Maximum Range

6,115 km

Maximum Payload

416 km

Maximum Takeoff Weight

18,597 kg

Basic Weight Empty

11,412 kg

Length x Wingspan x Height

24.08 m x 29.26 m x 8.73 m

A-38

Mi-24D (HIND D)

Type

Attack helicopter

Crew/Passengers

2; 8

Armament

Turret-mounted 4-barrel 12.7-mm Gatling gun;

and 57-mm rockets, up to 500-kg bombs,

ATGMs

Dash Speed

173 kn

Range

320 nmi

Maximum Endurance

1.9 hours

Basic Empty Weight

8,500 kg

Maximum Payload

2,400 kg

Sling Load

2,000 kg

Maximum Takeoff Weight

11,500 kg

Main Rotor

Number of Blades

Diameter

17.3 m

Length x Wingspan x Height

17.5 x 6.5 x 4.5 m

A-39

Mi-8T (HIP-C)

Type

Twin-turbine transport helicopter

Crew/Passengers

3/24

Weapons

Possibly 57-mm rockets or 500-kg bombs

Range

481 km

Maximum Dash Speed

260 km/h

Service Ceiling

4,800 m

Main Rotor

Number of Blades

Diameter

21.3 m

Payload

Internal

4,000 kg

Sling Load

3,000 kg

Maximum Design Takeoff Weight

12,000 kg (rolling takeoff)

Weight Empty

6,824 kg

Fuselage Length x Width x Height

18.22 x 2.5 x 4.75 m

B-1

APPENDIX B:

HOLIDAYS

National Holidays

Date Holiday Description

7 January Christmas (Genna)

19 January Epiphany (Timket) Commemorates the

visit of the Magi and

Jesus’s baptism

2 March Victory of Adowa Commemorates

the 1896 defeat of

Italy and the re-

sulting Treaty of

Addis Ababa rec-

ognizing Ethiopia’s

independence

15 February 2011

4 February 2012

23 January 2013

Mawlid al-Nabi* Celebrates the

birth of the Prophet

Muhammad

22 April 2011

13 April 2012

3 May 2013

Good Friday Commemorates the

cruciﬁxion of Jesus

Christ

24 April 2011

15 April 2012

5 May 2013

Easter (Fasika) Holy celebration of

Jesus Christ’s res-

urrection from the

dead following his

cruciﬁxion

1 May May Day

(International Labor

Day)

B-2

5 May Patriots’ Victory Day

(Arbegnoch Qen)

Commemorates the

liberation of Addis

Ababa from Italian

rule

28 May National Day Commemorates the

downfall of the Derg/

defeat of Mengistu

11 September New Year’s Day

(Enkutatash)

27 September

(28 September

during Leap Year)

Finding of the True

Cross (Meskel)

Commemorates St.

Helena’s 4th century

discovery of cross on

which Jesus Christ

was cruciﬁed

11 August 2011

19 August 2012

8 August 2013

Eid al-Fitr* Three-day celebration

following the holy

month of Ramadan,

when Muslims fast

from dawn to dusk;

the date is deter-

mined by the rising

of the new moon

7 November 2011

26 October 2012

15 October 2013

Eid al-Adha* Holiday at the end

of the pilgrimage

to Mecca; it honors

Abraham’s willing-

ness to sacriﬁce his

son

* Islamic holiday celebrations are based on lunar cycles

and actual dates vary by location.

C-1

APPENDIX C:

LANGUAGE

Key Phrases

English Somali Phonetic

Do you speak English? een-grease mah-koo hadashaa

adiggu

Form a line suff ghallah

One at a time koff-bah marr

Do you have…? mah hayee -saa

Get me a … ee cairn eh

Please/Thank you fudd-lahn/ whaad mahad-sahn

ta-hayee

Good morning (afternoon)/

Good-bye

subaH (galab) wanagsin/

nah-bud-gull-yoh

Help ah-wen

Do you need? Mah oo bah-hun tah-hai…?

Food/time oonoh/whuck-tee

How long? Ee-mee-say-ghaa-rey-sah?

How much? Whaa ee mee sah

How many? Ee-mee-say dunne tah-hai

Yes/No haa/maya (or ma)

How/what/when/why c-dhe/ma-hay/ghor-tè/wwy-yoh

Where/Which/Who hull-kè/meet-keh/koo-mah

Foreigners a-djeen-ah-bee

We are Americans wha-hahn nah-hayee marr-eyken

What’s your name?/My name

is Mary

adeegoo maga’aa? / maga’eygu

waa Mary

English Amhraic

Hello seu·lam

How are you? deu·na neuh (man) deu·na nuesh

(woman)

I am ﬁne. deu·na nueny

C-2

Thank you. a·meu·seu·ә·nal·1ō

OK/Yes ә·shi

Excuse me. yi kәr ta

Sorry. Az nol l ō

Help! әr duny!

Where’s the…? Yeut n?....ō

How much is it? s әnt n ?ō

Is there a toilet nearby? ә z zi a ka ba bi shәnt bet al leu?

Go (straight ahead)/(to a

man/to a woman)

(beu keu t ә ta) hid/hij

It’s on the left/right Beu (gra/keuny) beu kul n ō

Do you understand? Geub bah/geub bash?

I understand/I don’t

understand

Geub to nyal / al geu ba ny әm

Vowel Pronunciation

a ‘a’ as in father

ai ‘ai’ as in aisle

ay ‘ay’ as in day

e ‘e’ as in bed

eu ‘e’ as in her (without the r)

‘e’ as in garden

i ‘i’ in ‘bit’

o ‘o’ in ‘hot’

ow ‘ow’ in cow

‘o’ in both

u ‘u’ in ﬂute

D-1

APPENDIX D:

DANGEROUS PLANTS AND ANIMALS

Snakes

Eastern Rhombic

Night Adder

Description:

Adult length usually 0.4 to

0.6 meter, maximum of 1.0

meter; moderately stocky

snake. Background color

varies from gray to olive to

pinkish brown; patterned

with gray, black, or brown chevrons or spots. Belly usually gray,

but may be cream or yellow. Solid dark “V” marking on head.

Habitat:

Open woodland, grassland, and savanna near streams, marshes, or

other damp areas.

Activity and behavioral patterns:

Nocturnal, but spends much time basking during day and/or

sheltered in trash piles, rock crevices, and other hiding places.

Generally non aggressive and docile, seldom attempting to bite

except under extreme provocation. When threatened, will either

ﬂatten head and body or inﬂate itself with air, make several frantic

strikes, and then glide away quickly.

Venom’s effects:

Venom mildly cytotoxic and generally not dangerous, but may

cause acute discomfort. Bite usually results only in local pain,

swelling, and lymphadenophy. No reliable reports of fatalities.

D-2

Burrowing Asp

Description:

Adult length is usually less

than 0.9 meter; relatively

slender snake. Background

color varies; usually uni-

form dark purplish-brown

to black above. Short, con-

ical head, not distinct from the neck; snout broad, ﬂattened, often

pointed. Its fangs are well-developed and comparatively large in

relation to the size of its head. Small eyes with round pupils. Tail

short, ending in distinct spine.

Habitat:

Rain forests and savanna. Commonly lives under stones or

in burrows.

Activity and behavioral patterns:

May emerge at night, particularly after rain. Likely to bite as soon

as it is touched.

Venom’s effects:

Venom primarily hemotoxic. Victims may experience intense lo-

cal pain, swelling, and, in some instances, necrosis.

Puff Adder

Description:

Adult length usually 0.6 to

1 meter (2-3 feet), maxi-

mum of 1.5 meters (5 feet);

thick, heavily built snake.

Background color varies

from bright to light yel-

low, yellow-brown, orange-

D-3

brown, light brown, or gray. Belly yellowish white to gray with

black blotches. Rough-scaled appearance and alternating pattern

of dark and light chevron-shaped markings.

Habitat:

Most widely distributed venomous snake in Africa; encountered

almost anywhere, at both low and high elevations, except in rain

forests and extreme desert conditions.

Activity and behavioral patterns:

Both diurnal and nocturnal; known to bask in early mornings or

late afternoons. Comparatively slow-moving and sluggish; relies

on immobility and camouﬂage to escape detection. Bad tempered

and excitable; when disturbed, makes long deep hissing noise and

may lash out viciously.

Venom’s effects:

Many serious bites reported; only a small portion prove fa-

tal. Venom is potent cytotoxin, attacking tissue and blood cells.

Symptoms include extreme pain with swelling and large blisters

in region of the bite.

West African Night Adder

Description:

Adult length usually about

0.5 meter. Background col-

or generally gray, brown, or

olive green with dark rhom-

boidal marks along dor-

sum. Top of head and neck

have large, dark-edged

V-shaped mark.

Habitat:

Savanna and forest clearings.

D-4

Activity and behavioral patterns:

When threatened, inﬂates body and hisses in defense.

Venom’s effects:

Bites generally cause only pain, limited local swelling, and pain-

ful regional lymphadenophy. No fatalities reported.

Green Night Adder

Description:

Adult length usually 0.4

to 0.6 meter, maximum

of 0.75 meter; moderately

stocky snake. Background

color generally vivid green

with indistinct bars or

chevrons along the back.

Usually velvet-like sheen.

Habitat:

Moist, warm, low-lying areas at elevations up to 2,000 meters.

Activity and behavioral patterns:

Mainly nocturnal but sometimes seen in daytime. Terrestrial.

Venom’s effects:

Bite usually results only in local pain, swelling, and lymphadeno-

phy. Not considered lethal to humans.

Black Mamba

Description:

Adult length usually 2.5

to 3 meters (8 to 10 feet);

maximum of 4.3 meters

(14 feet); relatively slen-

der snake. Background

color may be brown, olive

D-5

brown, dark olive, greenish brown or dark blackish gray. Interior

of mouth blue-gray to blackish.

Habitat:

Dry, open woodland and scrub land, especially in area of rocky

outcroppings, but not in rain forest or desert. Also found in aban-

doned termite mounds and mammal burrows. Generally found be-

low 1,500 meters (4,920 feet) elevation.

Activity and behavioral patterns:

Essentially terrestrial, but climbs trees in search of prey or to seek

shelter. Generally moves off rapidly at the ﬁrst sign of danger.

When threatened, raises forepart of body from ground and spreads

narrow hood. However, if intruder does not move, it will soon drop

to the ground and seek cover. Uncertain temper and ready to at-

tack if suddenly disturbed or molested; particularly irritable dur-

ing mating season (spring or early summer). Very fast snake.

Venom’s effects:

Most dreaded African venomous snake; few people survive its bite un-

less antivenin administered promptly. Venom very potent neurotoxin.

Egyptian Carpet Viper

Description:

Adult length usually 0.3

to 0.6 meter (1-1.5 feet);

relatively stout snake.

Background color vari-

able, usually yellowish,

brown, gray, or reddish;

may have a series of oblique pale crossbars, interspersed with

dark spaces along back. Usually has rows of triangular or circular

markings with pale or white edging along each side. Some speci-

mens with faded or barely visible markings. Belly pale, usually

with brown or reddish spots. Head pear-shaped.

D-6

Habitat:

Found in oases, semi-desert, dry savanna, and rocky areas. Not

found in extensive areas of soft sand or in true desert.

Activity and behavioral patterns:

Terrestrial, although occasionally climbs into low bushes to avoid

hot or wet surfaces. Moves quickly. Primarily nocturnal. Hides in

holes, under logs, rocks, and brush piles during day; may partially

bury itself in sand or coil in or around grass tufts. When confront-

ed, quickly assumes ﬁgure-eight coil, rubbing inﬂated loops of

body together to make a distinctive noise similar to sawing wood.

If further agitated, will strike continuously and vigorously; may

even move toward an aggressor.

Venom’s effects:

Major source of snakebites and fatalities in region; venom highly

toxic to humans. Symptoms include local pain, swelling, blister-

ing, abdominal pain, vomiting, hematuria, bleeding from gums,

and fever. Lasting pain and renal failure reported.

African Garter Snake

Description:

Adult length usually 0.4

to 0.6 meter; moderately

slender snake. Background

color generally uniform

black or gray-black. Head

not distinct from the neck.

Tail short.

Habitat:

Generally found in coastal forests, high-level grasslands, or

arid savannas.

D-7

Activity and behavioral patterns:

Non aggressive, nocturnal snake that spends its days hiding under

stones or in burrows. Sluggish, but will bite in self-defense.

Venom’s effects:

Venom likely neurotoxic. Not considered lethal to humans.

Egyptian Cobra

Description:

Adult length usually 1.5 to

2 meters (5-6.5 feet), max-

imum of 3 meters (10 feet).

Background color usually

yellow-gray to brown or

blue-black, but extremely

variable. Belly yellowish with dark blotches. Most specimens have

dark brown or black band across the throat.

Habitat:

Various habitats include ﬂat land, scrubby bushes, grass clumps,

irrigated ﬁelds, rocky hillsides, old ruins, and in vicinity of vil-

lages. Sea level to 1,600 meters (5,250 feet) elevation. Not found

in rain forests or extreme desert conditions.

Activity and behavioral patterns:

Nocturnal; emerges at dusk, but often seen basking in sun near its

retreat in early morning. Often occupies abandoned rodent bur-

rows or termite mounds. While not overtly aggressive, when mo-

lested, will rear and spread an impressive hood up to 12 centime-

ters (4.7 inches) across.

Venom’s effects:

Venom primarily neurotoxic, acting largely on nerves controlling

respiratory muscles. Untreated cases may culminate in respiratory

failure and death.

D-8

Boomslang

Description:

Adult length usually 1.2

to 1.5 meters (3-5 feet);

relatively slender snake.

Background color varies

from almost black to al-

most uniform green; no blotches or distinct spots. Short, stubby head

and enormous emerald eyes. Scales strongly keeled and overlapping.

Habitat:

Most common in dry woodland, thorn scrub, savannahs, and

swamps bordering or close to streams, rivers, and lakes. Not found

in rain forest regions or true desert.

Activity and behavioral patterns:

Diurnal; spends most of time in trees and shrubs. Notably non

aggressive; quickly retreats if surprised. If cornered or restrained,

inﬂates neck to more than twice usual size.

Venom’s effects:

Potently hemotoxic; can cause severe bleeding internally and from

mucous surfaces. Deaths reported.

White-lipped or

Forest Cobra

Description:

Adult length usually 1.5 to

2 meters, maximum of 2.7

meters; relatively slender

snake. Background color

usually glossy black, dark

D-9

gray or dark brown dorsal area; belly creamy white to yellow, of-

ten with darker blotches.

Habitat:

Found in tropical rain forest and subtropical forest areas; seldom

far from water.

Activity and behavioral patterns:

Very active snake that climbs and swims well. Nocturnal but may

forage on overcast days. Equally at home in trees, on ground, or

swimming in lakes or rivers. When disturbed, can rear to a great

height; usually more than two-thirds of body raises from ground.

Spreads narrow hood.

Venom’s effects:

Bites reported infrequently, venom highly neurotoxic; fatali-

ties recorded.

Black-necked

Spitting Cobra

Description:

Adult length usually 1.2

to 2.2 meters, maximum

of 2.8 meters. Body color

highly variable, ranging

from pinkish tan in some

geographical areas to uni-

form black in others.

Habitat:

Found in moist savanna; shelters in abandoned termite mounds,

rodent burrows, or hollow tree trunks.

Activity and behavioral patterns:

Generally nocturnal, although juveniles active during day.

Although terrestrial and fairly aquatic, good climber. Inoffensive,

D-10

will usually take off if disturbed. When provoked, raises up,

spreads hood, and may “spit” at intruder’s face.

Venom’s effects:

Venom primarily cytotoxic, causing serious local tissue damage.

Large specimens can “spit” venom as far as 3 meters, aiming at

the eyes. The venom does not affect unbroken skin, but can cause

great pain and possible tissue destruction in the eyes. Venom has

caused permanent blindness in humans.

Red Spitting Cobra

Description:

Relatively slender snake;

most adults range between

0.7 meter - 1.2 meters with

a maximum of 1.5 meters.

They have a small head,

with large eyes, and round

pupils.Its tail and body is

cylindrical in shape. Color varies depending on its origin and can

be orange-red, yellow, pinkish, pink-gray, pale red, or steel gray.

True red specimens will become red-brown as they get larger.

Habitat:

Prefers grassland semi deserts and savannah up to 1,200 meters

(3,937 feet) elevation.

Activity and behavioral patterns:

Adults are mostly nocturnal and hide during the day in termite

hills, old logs, underground, or in brush piles.

Venom’s effects:

Venom primarily hemotoxic and may cause permanent blindness

if it reaches the eyes; fatalities uncommon.

D-11

Dangerous Invertebrates

Scorpions

Although several species

of scorpions that can in-

ﬂict a painful sting are

present, only the following

are capable of inﬂicting a

life-threatening sting:

■ Androctonus amoreuxi

■ Hottentotta minax

■ Leiurus quinquestriatus

■ Scorpio maurus

Spiders

Although several species

of spiders that can inﬂict

a painful bite are pres-

ent, only Latrodectus spp.

(widow spiders) inﬂict a

life-threatening bite.

Insects

There is little speciﬁc information of medical importance regard-

ing insects. However, nearly all countries have at least one spe-

cies of moth having venomous/urticating hairs and/or whose larva

(caterpillar) has venomous spines. Some caterpillars are very

hairy (such as puss moths and ﬂannel moths) and almost unrecog-

nizable as caterpillars, with long silky hairs completely covering

the shorter venomous spines. Others bear prominent clumps of

D-12

still, venomous spines on an otherwise smooth body. Contact with

these caterpillars can be very painful. Some are brightly colored.

Paederus are small (usually 4 to 7 millimeters), slender rove bee-

tles that do not look like typical beetles and have very short wing

covers that expose most of their ﬂexible abdomens. When crushed,

their body ﬂuid contains an agent that will blister skin on contact.

The lesions take about a week to heal and the area remains painful

for several weeks. The substance is extremely irritating if it gets

into the eyes; temporary blindness has been reported.

Centipedes

Although area centipedes are capable of inﬂicting a painful bite,

none are known to be life-threatening.

Millipedes

Millipedes do not bite and

in general are harmless to

humans. However, when

handled, some larger mil-

lipedes (may be more than

50 centimeters long) se-

crete a very noxious ﬂuid

that can cause severe blistering upon contact; some can squirt this

ﬂuid at least 2 feet.

Dangerous Plants

Modikka

No Photograph Available

Mechanisms of toxicity:

The root is reported to contain prussic acid and a cyanogenic gly-

coside, which is destroyed by drying. It also contains a toxalbumin

D-13

called modeccin, which is a protein-synthesis inhibitor. The usual

poisoning scenario is that of the root being mistaken for an edible

tuber, especially in situations of scarce food. Death has occurred

after ingestion of the fruit. Symptoms within one day are mainly

due to the hydrocyanic acid; the toxalbumin results in illness a few

days later. Used in India as a “worming” medicine; sap is very ir-

ritating. Has been used in Africa to murder.

Comments:

Some species have been used in Africa as medicinals (e.g., for

malaria and leprosy).

Mango

Other name:

Indica.

Mechanisms of toxicity:

The leaves, stem and

fruit’s skin on this tree

contain urushiol and other

similar long-chain phe-

nois. Other allergens are

also present. Skin inﬂammation can occur from eating the fruit

with the skin intact. Blisters may be conﬁned to the lips and face,

or can be generalized. Climbing the tree can result in severe skin

inﬂammation. There is also immediate hypersensitivity in some

individuals. Ensuring the fruit is peeled prior to ingestion can pre-

vent the reaction.

Comments:

Genus includes 35 species, usually large trees, primarily in Indo-

Malaysia. Frequently found near human dwellings. These trees

grow from 40 to 100 feet, and have lance-shaped leaves. Cultivated

varieties have excellent fruit (in some wild-growing plants the

D-14

fruit is unpleasant) edible raw or cooked. Ground seed is used as a

ﬂour; its fruit is used in chutney, pickles, squashes, etc.

African Teak

Other names:

Osage Orange, fustic,

bow wood.

Mechanisms of toxicity:

Benzophenones, xantho-

nes, stilbenes, ﬂavonoids,

and tannins known to the

genus. Has a milky, bitter

sap; yields orange dye that

causes skin inﬂammation.

Comments:

Includes 12 species found in tropical America, South Africa,

and Madagascar.

Bushman’s poison

Other names:

Poison tree, wintersweet.

Mechanisms of toxicity:

Seeds have a high con-

centration of toxin (car-

diac glycosides); fruit

pulp contains only traces.

Wood extract is easily ab-

sorbed through the skin; can be mixed with latex from one of the

Euphorbia family and gum from Acacia to make arrow poison;

also used as an ordeal poison. Extracts applied to prickly fruits

and laid in paths of barefoot enemy to kill. Symptoms of toxicity

include pain, nausea/vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea. Variable

D-15

latent period (interval between exposure and symptoms) with car-

diac conduction defects and sinus bradycardia; hyperkalemia.

Some species cause dermatitis, but this is not a common problem.

Comments:

Dense evergreen shrubs or small trees with a milky sap found in

Arabia and tropical eastern and southern Africa. Fruit resembles

an olive or small ellipsoidal plum and turns reddish to purple-

black at maturity (one to two seeds). Fruit exudes a milky sap

when cut. Aromatic ﬂowers are tubular, white/pink, in dense clus-

ters in the forks of the leaves.

Panama Tree

Other names:

Castano, tartargum.

Mechanisms of toxicity:

Seeds are edible, but pods

have internal stiff bristles

that easily penetrate skin,

causing intense irritation.

Comments:

There are 200 tropical

species.

Sasswood

No Photograph Available

Other names:

Ordealtree, mancona bark, ironwood, camel poison, black bean,

Cooktown ironwood.

Mechanisms of toxicity:

Extremely poisonous; the two main species have similar toxici-

ties. Alkaloids of esters and amides of cinnamic acid have been

isolated. Most of the alkaloids are esters of diterpenoid carboxylic

D-16

acids including cardiotoxic alkaloids. Powerful analgesic to the

mucous membranes.

Comments:

A ﬁsh poison.

Nettle Tree

Other names:

Ortiga brava, pringamoza.

Mechanisms of toxicity:

Trees and shrubs with

powerful stinging hairs.

The intensity of sting de-

livered by these plants is

species-variable. The bushy, tree-like varieties tend to be more

irritating. Any contact between leaves or branches and skin can

result in profound burning pain that can last for more than 24

hours. There is no permanent damage.

Comments:

Thirty-ﬁve native species in tropical and southern Africa, and

tropical America. Often used as hedges or local medicinals.

Freshwater Mangrove

No Photograph Available

Other names:

Putat, bitung, laut.

Mechanisms of toxicity:

Saponins and hydrocyanide have been isolated from fruit and

seeds. Used as ﬁsh poisons in many Paciﬁc islands. Fruit contains

a triterpenoid saponin, and the seeds are emetic and have been

shown to induce hypoglcemia in rodents.

D-17

Comments:

Large tree found growing along shorelines; have large (20-38 cen-

timeters-long, 10-15 centimeters-wide) non-toothed leaves, white

to pink ﬂowers (on individual stalks; square in cross section), and

one-seeded fruits (9-13 centimeters-long; square in cross-section).

Seeds are crushed and used as ﬁsh poison by Australian troops

and aborigines.

Desert Rose

Other names:

Monkey poison, mock

azalea, impala lily.

Mechanisms of toxicity:

Cardiac glycosides; used

for ordeals, arrow poison,

and as a ﬁsh stupiﬁer.

Comments:

Five species; shrubs or trees; tropical and subtropical African and

Arabian distribution. Thrive best in dry areas; have thick stems.

Kaht

Other Names:

Khat, qat, cafta.

Mechanisms of toxicity:

Leaves contain phenylpro-

panolamine and related

stimulant compounds.

Leaves chewed as a stimu-

lant; allows the user to go

for long periods without food; has reputation for causing near-

manic type episodes, hallucinations, and somnolence (sleepiness).

D-18

Comments:

Leafy bush can grow to 20-foot high at altitudes between 3,000-

6,000 feet in Yemen, Ethiopia, and East Africa. In Yemen, “Khat

sessions” are part of the social culture.

Rattlepod

Other names:

Rattlebox, rattleweed, chill-

agoe, horse poison.

Mechanisms of toxicity:

Contains pyrrolizidine al-

kaloids (monocrotaline, he-

liotrine, retrosine); can kill.

Low-level ingestions can

cause lung damage; high

levels will damage the liver.

Some species have caused toxicity through the contamination of

ﬂour or when incorporated in teas.

Comments:

The fruits are inﬂated dehiscent legumes (pods) with parchment-

like walls; the ripe seeds come loose within the pods and rattle

when shaken. The ﬂowers are pea-like. Found in open woods,

roadsides, margins, sandy soils, and ﬁelds.

Kamyuye

No Photograph Available

Mechanisms of toxicity:

Contains latex with a mixture of sequiterpene alcohols. Has long

been used as a medicinal. Used in Africa as a poison. Accidental

fatalities have occurred when the bark was used to prepare a medi-

cine for stomach problems.

D-19

Comments:

Tropical African aromatic shrub. Source of vanilla-scented oil.

Coca

Mechanisms of toxicity:

Natives of the Peru-Bolivia

region chew the leaf for its

stimulating effect. The source

of cocaine.

Comments:

Growth is markedly affected

by the environment, especially

temperature. Fruit is bright

red, pointed, succulent. Found

in the upland soils of tropical

South America, cultivated in

the lowlands of various tropi-

cal areas.

Black Henbane

Other names:

Insane root, fetid nightshade.

Mechanisms of toxicity:

Old well-known medicinal

and deadly poison (hyo-

scyamine, atropine) with

many uses in many cul-

tures. Tropine alkaloids in

the seeds (in a pod); has

resulted in death; dermatitis (low risk).

D-20

Comments:

Erect, hairy annual with coarse, hairy stems 1-5 feet tall, native

to Europe. Found in “weed communities” along roadsides on nu-

trient-rich sandy soils and loam. Dusky yellow ﬂowers with violet

veins. Fruits are capsules containing many black seeds (can be

confused with the poppy plant seeds).

Strychnine

Other names:

Nuxvomica tree,

Snakewood tree.

Mechanisms of toxicity:

The entire plant, includ-

ing the seeds, contains the

powerfully acting indole

alkaloid strychnine, which

can kill.

Comments:

Genus of 190 different species of trees, shrubs and vines with

berry-like fruits, found in most tropical regions. Some have the

reputation of having edible fruit despite dangerous seeds. It is a

source of curare obtained by stripping and macerating its bark.

Curare, now used as a muscle relaxant, was formerly used as an

arrow poison by South American Indians.

Poisonvine

No Photograph Available

Other name:

Arrow poison plant.

Mechanisms of toxicity:

Seeds have digitalis-like toxins and are used as arrow and spear

poison in Africa.

D-21

Comments:

Genus of 38 tropical species of shrubs. Monkeys have died after

eating a few leaves.

Heliotrope

Other names:

Cherry pie, scorpion’s tail,

Indian heliotrope.

Mechanisms of toxicity:

Contains pyrrolizidine alka-

loids. Cause of large epidemics

(Afghanistan, India) of illness

following ingestion of bread

made with ﬂour contaminated

with members of this genus.

The pathologic effects (Budd-

Chiari syndrome) take weeks

to months, and death comes

slowly over years. Chronic cop-

per poisoning has occurred associated with this plant.

Comments:

A large genus of worldwide distribution (250 tropical and temper-

ate trees and shrubs).

Balogna Sausage Tree

No Photograph Available

Mechanisms of toxicity:

Common in South Africa. The powdered fruit is used as medi-

cine for numerous ailments (frequently applied externally). The

ripe fruit is a purgative. The fruit can be 12 to 20 inches long

and weigh up to 8 pounds. The fruit is regarded as highly poison-

ous; however, the toxic principles are not clear. Used by various

D-22

African groups as a sexual excitant and in wound treatment. Often

the fruit is added to beer to add intoxicating effect, but this tends to

cause headache.

Comments:

A large tree pollinated by bats; the tree has adapted by developing

long stalks from which the ﬂowers are suspended, hanging in open

air so the bats have easy access.

Pokeweed

Other names:

Pokeberry, poke salet.

Mechanisms of toxicity:

Mature stems, roots, and

berries are poison (sapo-

nins mostly in foliage and

roots). Death possible when

not prepared properly.

Comments:

Young shoot tips, less than 6 inches, are eaten in many cultures,

including Canada; requires proper preparation (boiled with water

changes; water contains toxic substances — kills snails that carry

bilharzia). Dye from berries used to color ink, wine, sweets.

Balsam Apple

Other names:

Leprosy gourd, bitter gourd,

cucumber gourd.

Mechanisms of toxicity:

Seeds and outer rind of ripe

fruit contain a toxalbumin

called momordin; the ripe

fruit also has an hypogly-

D-23

cemic agent. Small amounts cause headache, ﬂushing, salivation,

dilated pupils, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain. Can kill.

Comments:

A slender vine with small yellow ﬂowers. Fruits have a rough outer

rind, variable shape but like a gourd, usually yellowish with red-

dish pulp.

E-1

APPENDIX E:

MINES

Antitank Mines

M7A2 PT-Mi-Ba II

M15 PT-Mi-Ba III

M/71 TM-46

P2 Mk2 TMN-46

P2 Mk3 TM-57

PRB M3 TM-62M

PRB M3 A1 TMK-2

Antipersonnel Mines

M14 MON-200

M16 PMD-6

M18A1 PMN

MON-50 POMZ-2M

MON-100

Other Mines

Mk-2 Trip Flare

SM Signal Mine

F-1

APPENDIX F:

BORDER DELIMITATION

Border Delimitation Between Eritrea and Ethiopia

Point Lat/Long Description

1 14º15.4’N36º33.6’E Western terminus – center of Setit opposite the

tri-point between Ethiopia, Sudan, and Eritrea

2 14º18.7’N36º38.3’E Junction of Setit and one of its tributaries by

passing Om Hajer, approximate location of Khor

Um Hagar

3 14º19.1’N36º49.7’E Junction of Setit and Maiteb as claimed by

Ethiopia

4 14º24.8’N37º21.1’E Junction of Setit and Sittona, which is called

Maetebbe (Maeeteb) on some maps created

before 1902

5 14º15’N37º28’E Junction of Setit and another Maiteb as depicted

on maps created after 1902

6 14º11.0’N37º31.7’E Junction of Setit and Tomsa

7A 14º05’45.6”N37º34.26.4’E Turning point from Setit to Mareb as claimed by

Eritrea

7B 14º05.8’N37º34.7’E Turning point from Setit to Mareb

8 14º04.0’N37º35.8’E Junction of Setit and Maiten

9 14º53.6’.4N37º54.8’E Junction of Mareb and Mai Ambessa

10 14º48’N37º58’E Junction of Mareb and Gongoma stream per

1904 maps

11 14º38.0’N39º01.3’E Junction of Mareb and Belesa

12 14º38.3’N39º06.2’E Junction of Belesa/Ruba Dairo and Tsorena/

Mestai

12A 14º24.6’N39º15.2’E Junction of Belesa/Ruba Dairo and unnamed

tributary

13 14º35.0’N39º14.2’E Junction of Tsorena/Mestai Mes and Sur

14 14º29.1’N39º16.0’E Junction of Tsorena/Mestai Mes and unnamed

tributary

15 14º28.3’N39º14.9’E Source of above unnamed tributary

16 14º28.0’N39º14.8’E Source of unnamed tributary of Belesa/Ruba

Dairo

17 14º27.1’N39º13.7’E Junction of above tributary and Belesa/Ruba

Dairo

F-2

Point Lat/Long Description

18 14º27.8’N39º21.6’E Point lying 100 meters (328 feet) west of the

center of the road running from Adigrat to

Zelambessa

19 14º31.1’N39º22.2’E Source of one of the headwaters of Sur (see

point 13)

20 14º31.1’N39º23.0’E Source of one of the headwaters of Muna

(Berbero Gado)

21 14º30.1’N39º32.3’E Junction of Muna and Enda Dashim

22 14º31.3’N39º30.4’E Junction of Enda Dashim and one of its

tributaries ﬂowing from the north

23 14º32.9’N39º30.5’E Junction of the above tributary and a higher

tributary ﬂowing from the northeast

24 14º34.3’N39º31.7’E Source of headwaters of higher tributary

25 14º34.8’N39º31.9’E Source of one of the headwaters of a tributary

ﬂowing toward Endeli from the west

26 14º36.2’N39º38.3’E Junction of the above tributary and Endeli

27 14º30.7’N39º47.4’E Junction of Muna and Endeli near Massolae

28 14º27’N39º59’E Approximate point near Rend Acoma where

Mina/Endeli continues as Ragali

29 14º32.9’N40º05.6’E Point where Ragali Delta starts

30 14º33.1’N40º08.5’E Turning point in Ragali Delta

31 14º23.2’N40º12.8’E Point where the boundary under the 1900

treaty reaches the Afar Salt Lake and where the

boundary starts under the 1908 treaty

32 14º24.1’N40º14.9’E Turning point designated in the Eastern Sector

33 14º08.5’N40º52.7’E Turning point designated in the Eastern Sector

34 13º32.9’N41º19.4’E Turning point designated in the Eastern Sector

35 13º24.8’N41º34.9’E Turning point designated in the Eastern Sector

36 13º20.3’N41º39.7’E Turning point designated in the Eastern Sector

37 13º05.5’N41º53.8’E Turning point designated in the Eastern Sector

38 12º48.2’N42º02.3’E Turning point designated in the Eastern Sector

39 12º45.9’N42º13.1’E Turning point designated in the Eastern Sector

40 To be determined by

actual demarcation

Between the two checkpoints of Ethiopia and

Eritrea at Bure

41 12º28.3’N42º24.1’E Eastern terminus at the border of Djibouti

Notes