Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Table of Contents
OVERVIEW OF THE TEST AND RESOURCES FOR PREPARATION 3
FOUNDATIONS OF READING DEVELOPMENT (35% OF THE TEST) 9
Section 0001 Understand Phonological and Phonemic Awareness: 10
Section 0002: Understand Concepts of Print & the Alphabetic Principle: 17
Section 0003: Understand the Role of Phonics in Promoting Reading Development 21
Section 0004: Understand Word Analysis Skills and Strategies 33
DEVELOPMENT OF READING COMPREHENSION (27% OF THE TEST) 37
Section 0005: Understand Vocabulary Development: 38
Section 0006: Understand How to Apply Reading Comprehension Skills and Strategies to
Imaginative/Literary Texts 44
Section 0007: Understand How to Apply Reading Comprehension Skills and Strategies to
Informational/Expository Texts 54
READING ASSESSMENT AND INSTRUCTION (18% OF THE TEST) 58
Section 0008: Understand Formal and Informal Methods for Assessing Reading Development: 59
Section 0009: Understand Multiple Approaches to Reading Instruction 68
TEACHING READING TO ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS 69
STAGES OF READING DEVELOPMENT 71
INTEGRATION OF KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING (20% OF THE TEST) 76
Section 0010: Prepare an organized, developed analysis on a topic related to one or more of the following:
foundations of reading development; development of reading comprehension; reading assessment and
instruction. 77
OPEN RESPONSE QUESTIONS AND MTEL OVERVIEW CHARTS 78
GLOSSARY 92
Overview of the Test
and
Resources for Preparation
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Key Websites
➢ Jennifer Yaeger’s Web Site—
o This site includes the MTEL Foundations of Reading Practice Test, MTEL
Foundations of Reading Multiple Choice Analysis, MTEL Test Information Booklet
with sample questions, Put Reading First and many other helpful links:
www.jenniferyaeger.weebly.com
➢ MTEL Website
o The MTEL Foundations of Reading Practice Test:
http://www.mtel.nesinc.com/PDFs/MA_FLD090_PRACTICE_TEST.
pdf
o The MTEL Foundations of Reading MTEL Practice Test Analysis:
http://www.mtel.nesinc.com/PDFs/MA_FLD090_PT_appendix_13.p
df
➢ Put Reading First
http://lincs.ed.gov/publications/pdf/PRFbooklet.pdf
➢ Other Recommended Texts/Study Guides
o Boosalis, Chris Nicholas (2004). Beating them All! Boston: MA. Pearson.
o Kinzer, C.K. & Leu, D.J. (2011) Phonics, Phonemic Awareness, and Word
Analysis for Teachers: An Interactive Tutorial, 9/e. Boston, MA: Allyn and
Bacon.
➢ Reading Rockets
This site includes useful and informative articles on a variety of reading related topics. In
particular, below is a list of web addresses to suggested articles included in this study guide:
Types of Phonics Instruction and Instructional Methods: www.readingrockets.org/article/254
What Does Research Tell Us About Teaching Reading to English Language Learners?:
www.readingrockets.org/article/19757
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Test Overview Chart: Foundations of Reading (PreK-6) (90)
Subareas
Approximate
Number of
Multiple-Choice
Items
Number of
Open-Response
Items
I. Foundations of Reading Development
43-45
II. Development of Reading Comprehension
33-35
III. Reading Assessment and Instruction
21-23
IV. Integration of Knowledge and Understanding
2
The Foundations of Reading test is designed to assess the candidate’s knowledge of reading/language
arts required for the Massachusetts Early Childhood, Elementary, and Moderate Disabilities licenses.
This subject matter knowledge is delineated in the Massachusetts Department of Education’s
Regulations for Educator Licensure and Preparation Program Approval (7/2001), 603 CMR 7.06 “Subject
Matter Knowledge Requirements for Teachers.”
The Foundations of Reading test assesses the candidate’s proficiency and depth of understanding of
the subject of reading and writing development based on the requirement that the candidate has
participated in seminars or courses that address the teaching of reading. Candidates are typically
nearing completion of or have completed their undergraduate work when they take the test.
The multiple-choice items on the test cover the subareas as indicated in the chart above. The open-
response items may relate to topics covered in any of the subareas and will typically require breadth
of understanding of the field and the ability to relate concepts from different aspects of the field.
Responses to the open-response items are expected to be appropriate and accurate in the application
of subject matter knowledge, to provide high quality and relevant supporting evidence, and to
demonstrate a soundness of argument and understanding of the field.
Official Massachusetts Tests for Educator Licensure (MTEL) test objectives and preparation materials appear on the MTEL Website at
www.mtel.nesinc.com. Copyright ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliate(s). All rights reserved. Evaluation Systems, Pearson, P.O.
Box 226, Amherst, MA 01004.
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Massachusetts Tests for Educator Licensure
TM
FIELD 90: FOUNDATIONS OF READING
TEST OBJECTIVES
Multiple-Choice
Range of
Objectives
Approximate Test
Weight
I. Foundations of Reading Development
01-04
35%
II. Development of Reading Comprehension
05-07
27%
III. Reading Assessment and Instruction
08-09
18%
80%
Open-Response
IV. Integration of Knowledge and Understanding
10
20%
Official Massachusetts Tests for Educator Licensure (MTEL) test objectives and preparation materials appear on the MTEL Website at
www.mtel.nesinc.com. Copyright ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliate(s). All rights reserved. Evaluation Systems, Pearson, P.O.
Box 226, Amherst, MA 01004.
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Charts that Support General Concepts on the MTEL
Explicit Instruction
Implicit Instruction
Most important “first step in a sequence of instruction”
For extension and practice; reinforcement of a
previously taught skill
Teacher models, demonstrates; often direct
instruction
Learning may be placed in an authentic context,
where many skills and understandings are
developed simultaneously (e.g. shared reading).
Overt objective; measurable
May feel less clear “what” would be assessed
Principal could walk in the door and without
seeing lesson plan would be able to identify
purpose
Purpose may be unclear to an outside observer
(or even participant)
Focused
May not appear focused
Multiple Choice: How to approach certain types of questions…
When Multiple Choice Questions Relate to
Word Identification
When Multiple Choice Questions Relate to
Vocabulary and Comprehension
Think: “Back to Basics”
Think: Which activity would help develop
independent readers and critical thinkers?
Traditional approach; may feel rote
Focus is on deep, not superficial understanding
Teacher-directed; very focused
Active learning instead of passive
Explicit, systematic, sequential phonics
instruction is of primary importance (use of
syntax, semantics, context clues should be
considered “back-up plans”)
Not “random” assignments, but focused ones
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Reading Development and Identification of Gaps
Foundations of Reading
Development
What is often the missing part of the
equation???
Comprehension and
Fluency
Oral Language
Phonological Awareness
(specifically phonemic
awareness)
Emergent Literacy
Concepts about Print
Letter Identification
Alphabetic Principle (letters
and letter combinations
represent sounds)
Word Identification:
• Phonics
• Word Analysis
• Sight Words
• Use of Context
Clues (semantics,
syntax)—often
observed when
students self-correct
Vocabulary
Schema/Background Knowledge
Self-Monitoring
(metacognition--application of active
reading strategies such as questioning,
predicting, connecting)
Demonstrates fluent
reading and
understanding of texts
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Foundations of Reading
Development
(35% of the test)
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Section 0001 Understand Phonological and Phonemic
Awareness:
✓ The distinction between phonological awareness (i.e. the awareness that oral language is
composed of smaller units, such as spoken words and syllables) and phonemic awareness
(i.e. a specific type of phonological awareness involving the ability to distinguish the separate
phonemes in a spoken word)
✓ The role of phonological awareness and phonemic awareness in reading development
✓ The difference between phonemic awareness and phonics skills
✓ Levels of phonological and phonemic awareness skills (e.g. rhyming, segmenting, blending,
deleting and substituting)
✓ Strategies (e.g., implicit, explicit) to promote phonological and phonemic awareness (e.g.
distinguishing spoken words, syllables, onsets/rimes, phonemes)
✓ The role of phonological processing in the reading development of individual students
(ELLs, struggling readers, highly proficient readers)
Official Massachusetts Tests for Educator Licensure (MTEL) test objectives and preparation materials appear on the MTEL Website at
www.mtel.nesinc.com. Copyright ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliate(s). All rights reserved. Evaluation Systems, Pearson, P.O.
Box 226, Amherst, MA 01004.
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Terminology
Phoneme: a phoneme is the smallest part of spoken language that makes a difference in the meaning
of words. English has 41 phonemes. A few words, such as a or oh, have only one phoneme. Most
words, however, have more than one phoneme: The word if has two phonemes (/i/ /f/); check has
three phonemes (/ch/ /e/ /k/), and stop (/s/ /t/ /o/ /p/) has four phonemes. Sometimes one
phoneme is represented by more than one letter.
Grapheme: a grapheme is the smallest part of written language that represents a phoneme in the
spelling of a word. A grapheme may be just one letter, such as b, d, f, p, s; or several letters, such
as ch, sh, th, -ck, ea, -igh.
Phonics: The understanding that there is a predictable relationship between phonemes (sounds of
spoken language) and graphemes (the letters and spellings that represent those sounds in written
language).
Phonemic Awareness: The ability to hear, identify, and manipulate individual sounds – phonemes –
in spoken words. This is purely an auditory skill and does NOT involve a connection to the written
form of language.
Phonological Awareness: A broad term that includes phonemic awareness. In addition to phonemes,
phonological awareness activities can involve work with rhymes, words, syllables, and onsets and
rimes.
Syllable: A word part that contains a vowel, or, in spoken language, a vowel sound.
Onset and Rime: Parts of spoken language that are smaller than syllables but larger than phonemes.
An onset is the initial consonant sound of a syllable; a rime is the part of a syllable that contains the
vowel and all that follows it. STOP (st = onset; op = rime)
Teaching Strategies and Resources for Further Study:
Review Phonemic Awareness Instruction section (pages 1-10) in Put Reading First. You can
read it online or download it from the following address:
www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading/publications/PFRbooklet.pdf
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Comparison of Phonological Awareness and Phonemic
Awareness to Phonics
PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS
PHONICS
Lights Out!
It’s Auditory
Lights On!
It’s Auditory + Visual
The following examples of phonological awareness
skills are listed in a hierarchy from “basic” to “more
complex”:
1. Rhyming
2. Syllables
3. Counting words in a sentence
4. Hearing/manipulating onset and rime
5. Phonemic Awareness
o The most complex level of phonological
awareness.
o The ability to manipulate and identify the
individual phonemes in spoken words.
o Phonemic awareness skills also fall within a
hierarchy from “basic” to “complex”
o Identification of initial sound (e.g. /v/ is the
first sound in van) is one example of a basic
level.
o Phonemic segmentation is considered a
benchmark for demonstrating a complex level
of phonemic awareness.
o Example: How many sounds/ phonemes in
ship? /sh/ /i/ /p/=3
o One of the greatest predictors of reading
success.
o Alphabetic principle
o Mapping phonemes to their
corresponding letters and letter
combinations (graphemes)
Onset
Rime
st
op
c
at
br
ight
s
ing
sh
ape
l
ip
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Elkonin Boxes: Sounds in Words
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Phonemic Awareness (Excerpted from
Put Reading First
1
)
:
What does scientifically based research tell us about phonemic awareness
instruction?
Key findings from the scientific research on phonemic awareness instruction provide the
following conclusions of particular interest and value to classroom teachers.
Phonemic awareness can be taught and learned.
Effective phonemic awareness instruction teaches children to notice, think about, and work with
(manipulate) sounds in spoken language. Teachers use many activities to build phonemic awareness,
including:
Phoneme isolation
Children recognize individual sounds in a word.
Teacher: What is the first sound in van?
Children: The first sound in van is /v/.
Phoneme identity
Children recognize the same sounds in different words.
Teacher: What sound is the same in fix, fall, and fun?
Children: The first sound, /f/, is the same.
Phoneme categorization
Children recognize the word in a set of three or four words that has the “odd” sound.
Teacher: What word doesn’t belong? Bus, Bun, Rug.
Children: Rug does not belong. It doesn’t begin with /b/.
Phoneme blending
Children listen to a sequence of separately spoken phonemes, and then combine the phonemes to
form a word. Then they write and read the word.
Teacher: What word is /b/ /i/ /g/?
Children: /b/ /i/ /g/ is big.
*Teacher: Now let’s write the sounds in big: /b/, write b; /i/, write i; /g/, write g.
*Teacher: (Writes big on the board.) now we’re going to read the word big.
Phoneme segmentation
Children break a word into its separate sounds, saying each sound as they tap out or count it.
Then they write and read the word.
Teacher: How many sounds are in grab?
Children: /g/ /r/ /a/ /b/. Four sounds.
*Teacher: Now let’s write the sounds in grab: /g/, write g; /r/, write r; /a/, write
a; /b/, write b.
* Teacher: (Writes grab on the board.) Now we’re going to read the word grab.
* Now it’s “lights on!” What is the skill? ________________________
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Phoneme deletion
Children recognize the word that remains when a phoneme is removed from another word.
Teacher: What is smile without the /s/?
Children: Smile without the /s/ is mile.
Phoneme addition
Children make a new word by adding a phoneme to an existing word.
Teacher: What word do you have if you add /s/ to the beginning of park?
Children: Spark.
Phoneme substitution
Children substitute one phoneme for another to make a new word.
Teacher: The word is bug. Change /g/ to /n/. What’s the new word?
Children: bun.
Phonemic awareness instruction helps children learn to read.
Phonemic awareness instruction improves children’s ability to read words. It also improves their
reading comprehension. Phonemic awareness instruction aids reading comprehension. Phonemic
awareness instruction aids reading comprehension primarily through its influence on word reading.
For children to understand what they read, they must be able to read words rapidly and accurately.
Rapid and accurate word reading frees children to focus their attention on the meaning of what they
read. Of course, many other things, including the size of children’s vocabulary and their world
experiences, contribute to reading comprehension.
Phonemic awareness instruction helps children learn to spell.
Teaching phonemic awareness, particularly how to segment words into phonemes, helps children learn
to spell. The explanation for this may be that children who have phonemic awareness understand that
sounds and letters are related in a predictable way. Thus, they are able to relate the sounds to letters
as they spell words.
Some common phonemic awareness terms:
PHONEME MANIPULATION:
When children work with phonemes in words, they are manipulating the phonemes. Types of
phoneme manipulation include blending phonemes to make words, segmenting words into
phonemes, deleting phonemes from words, adding phonemes to words, or substituting one
phoneme for another to make a new word.
BLENDING
When children combine individual phonemes to form words, they are blending the phonemes. They
also are blending when they combine onsets and rimes to make syllables and combine syllables to
make words.
SEGMENTING (SEGMENTATION):
When children break words into their individual phonemes, they are segmenting the words. They are
also segmenting when they break words into syllables and syllables into onsets and rimes.
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Phonological, Phonemic Awareness, Phonics Practice
1. Let’s find the pictures that rhyme. That means they have the same ending sound.”
The teacher is developing which skill with the exercise above? _________________
2. “Let’s match pictures that have the same first sound.”
The teacher is developing which skill with the exercise above? _____________
3. Imagine a beginning reader reads the sentence below. Notice how the student segments the
word, then has to blend it back together. This example shows how ________________ supports
decoding.
b-i-g
The dog is big.
4. How many sounds in the word BLAST? __________
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Section 0002: Understand Concepts of Print & the
Alphabetic Principle:
✓ Development of the understanding that print carries meaning
✓ Strategies for promoting awareness of the relationship between spoken and written language
✓ The role of environmental print in developing print awareness
✓ Development of book handling skills
✓ Strategies for promoting an understanding of the directionality of print
✓ Techniques for promoting the ability to track print in connected text
✓ Strategies for promoting letter knowledge (e.g., skill in recognizing and naming upper-case
and lower-case letters)
✓ Letter formation (how to form/write letters correctly)
✓ Strategies for promoting an understanding of the alphabetic principle (i.e., the recognition
that phonemes are represented by letters and letter pairs)
✓ Use of reading and writing strategies for teaching letter-sound correspondence
✓ Development of alphabetic knowledge in individual students (English Language Learners,
struggling readers through highly proficient readers)
Terminology
Alphabetic Principle: phonemes (speech sounds) that are represented by letters and letters pairs.
Environmental Print: print found authentically in our environment (stop sign, labels on food).
Emergent Literacy: “There is not a point in a child’s life when literacy begins; rather it is a
continuous process of learning.” This means that we are emerging in our understanding of literacy
before we can even speak. Literacy development begins with one’s earliest experiences of authentic
literacy in the home (from the development of oral language, to having books read to you, to
“scribbling” as a precursor to conventional letter formation). On the MTEL, students described as
“emergent readers” are typically in an early childhood setting or kindergarten. They have not yet
begun formal reading instruction.
Book Handling Skills: Illustrates a child’s knowledge of how books “work” (how to hold the book,
tracking print from left to right, front and back cover, title page, dedication page etc.
Official Massachusetts Tests for Educator Licensure (MTEL) test objectives and preparation materials appear on the MTEL Website at
www.mtel.nesinc.com. Copyright ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliate(s). All rights reserved. Evaluation Systems, Pearson, P.O.
Box 226, Amherst, MA 01004.
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Literacy Development in Emergent Readers
• Emergent readers are often identified as preschoolers on the test
• Develop the understanding that print carries meaning (through being read to and through
having their spoken words written in print)
• Mimic readers in their lives (“pretend reading”, emergent storytelling; demonstrating
concepts about print and book handling)
• Mimic writers in their lives (approximating in increasingly conventional ways writing to
convey a message—from squiggles to strings of random letters, to simple phonetic spelling
of dominant sounds in words)
• Build oral language (building receptive and expressive vocabularies through conversation,
through hearing language spoken around them, through being read to)
• Build phonological awareness (e.g. a sense of rhyming)
• Develop knowledge of letter names (letter identification)
• May begin to develop knowledge of alphabetic principle (the sounds associated with letters)
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Samples of Emergent Writing
This first example illustrates the
literacy skills of a child who
knows that “print carries
meaning”. She knows that the
squiggles carry meaning and are
different than pictures. She does
not yet know conventional letters.
Learning some letters that hold
relevance for her (i.e. those in her
name or the names of loved ones,
letters from environmental print)
would be a logical next step for
her.
This example shows a child
further along in his literacy
development. He is writing
conventional letters, although the
letters used are random and are
not yet associated with the
corresponding sound(s). He has
grasped the idea that the
function of print is distinct
from that of pictures.
This child is now showing
knowledge of the alphabetic
principle (phonics). She is
labeling the first name of each
person in the picture: Mommy,
Ben, Daddy, Annie. She knows
the letters are represented by
sounds.
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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“I was going to New Jersey I saw a cool
piece of lightning.”
This child’s phonetic spelling
illustrates her phonics knowledge
(she is applying knowledge of the
alphabetic principle and is
representing sounds with the
letters she knows).
“When I went outside in my back yard I
saw a squirrel chewing on a pinecone.
I was very quiet but then [it ran up a
tree].”
This child’s story shows evidence
of her knowledge of concepts
about print and the alphabetic
principle:
o Left to right and top to
bottom directionality; return
sweep
o Spaces between words
o High Frequency Words: I,
went, in, my, a, on, was, very,
but
o Knowledge of phonics
generalizations with the
dominant consonant and
short vowel sounds
o Developing knowledge of
phonics generalizations for
digraphs and the CVCe (silent
e) pattern. Note how she
“uses but confuses” these
generalizations in the words
“shooing” for “chewing” and
“ven” for “then”. She also
uses the CVCe pattern in the
word “side” but not in
“pinecone”. She is ready to
learn these patterns.
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Section 0003: Understand the Role of Phonics in
Promoting Reading Development
✓ Explicit and implicit strategies for teaching phonics
✓ The role of phonics in developing rapid, automatic word recognition
✓ The role of automaticity in developing reading fluency
✓ Interrelationship between decoding, fluency and reading comprehension
✓ The interrelationship between letter-sound correspondence and beginning decoding (e.g.,
blending letter sounds)
✓ Strategies for helping students decode single-syllable words that follow common patterns (e.g.
CVC, CVCC) and multisyllable words
✓ Methods for promoting and assessing the use of phonics generalizations to decode words in
connected text
✓ Use of semantic and syntactic cues to help decode words
✓ The relationship between decoding and encoding (e.g. analyzing the spellings of beginning
readers to assess phonic knowledge, using spelling instruction to reinforce phonics skills)
✓ Strategies for promoting automaticity and fluency (i.e., accuracy, rate, and prosody)
✓ The relationship between oral vocabulary and the process of decoding written words
✓ Specific terminology associated with phonics (e.g. phoneme, morpheme, consonant digraph,
consonant blend)
✓ Development of phonics skills in individual students and fluency in individual students (e.g.,
English Language Learners, struggling readers through highly proficient readers)
Teaching Strategies and Resources for Further Study:
✓ Review Phonics section (pages 11-19) in Put Reading First.
✓ Read article on the Three Cueing Systems in your study guide.
Official Massachusetts Tests for Educator Licensure (MTEL) test objectives and preparation materials appear on the MTEL Website at
www.mtel.nesinc.com. Copyright ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliate(s). All rights reserved. Evaluation Systems, Pearson, P.O.
Box 226, Amherst, MA 01004.
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
22
The Three Reading Cueing Systems
2
Capable readers use all three cueing systems. Teachers need to teach and
asssess for all three cueing systems.
Background
Knowledge
Book
Knowledge
Story
Structure
Illustrations
Grammatical
patterns
Natural
language
Book
language
English
syntax
Sight words
Onsets and
rimes
Punctuation
Conventions
of Print
Letter-sound
relations
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Cueing Systems
What are the cueing systems? Cueing systems are strategies that readers use to predict, confirm and
self-correct when reading words that they do not already know with automaticity.
When analyzing for use of cueing systems, analyze only up to the point of error, not beyond.
A simplified version of the cueing systems:
Cueing System
Questions and
prompts for the
reader:
Demands knowledge
of. . .
MTEL
Interpretation
Meaning/Semantics
(M)
What would
m
ake
sense?
Does that make
sense?
• The context of
sentence,
paragraph,
passage and/or
text
• Background
knowledge
• Illustrations,
where available
Context Clues
-
“Back
-Up Plan”
Structure/Syntax
(S)
What would
s
ound right?
How would we say it?
Would we say it that
way?
• Grammar
• An intuitive sense
of the correct
order of words in
a sentence,
subject-verb
agreement,
consistent use of
tense
Visual/Phonics
(V)
What word matches the
print?
What sounds do the
letters/letter
combinations make?
“Sound it out”.
“Tap it out.”
“Chunk it.”
• Alphabetic
principle
• Letter-sound
correspondence
• Phonics
generalizations
• Structural Analysis
Strategies
THE CUEING
SYSTEM GIVEN
GREATEST
PRIORITY AND
IMPORTANCE for
INSTRUCTION—
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Important Phonics Generalizations and Terms
3
,
4
Consonants (C)
Vowels (V)
Some useful
generalizations
about
consonants and
vowels:
B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N,
P etc.
Consonant letters are fairly
reliable. There is a strong
relationship between the letter
and the sound we expect it to
represent.
Consonants represent the
dominant sounds in words.
Generally, vowel sounds are considered short, such
as in the sounds below:
Or long, such as the sounds in the words below:
Vowels are more difficult to learn because each
letter is represented by more than one distinct
sound; the sound depends on the other letters
around it. Vowel sounds are also harder to
discriminate (hear, manipulate, identify).
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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CONSONANTS
VOWELS
. . .but there are
irregularities. . .
A letter may represent more than one
phoneme. For example, some
consonant letters may produce a hard or
soft soft.
The hard c is the sound of /k/ in cat.
The soft c is the sound of /s/ in cent,
and city.
The hard g is the sound of /g/ in game.
The soft g is the sound of /j/ in gem and
gentle.
Vowel sounds behave differently in
accented and unaccented syllables.
The vowel is most clearly heard in
the accented syllable.
Final -y
Y functions as a vowel in the final
position (e.g. very, merry)
BLend DigraPH
(Each phoneme still heard) (Combination of letters creates a new phoneme)
Blends
bl, sm, scr, gr, sl, etc.
Blends are consonant pairs or clusters.
Trick to help you remember: The bl in blend
is an example…notice that you still hear
each sound “through to the end” (these
letters do NOT make a new sound when
combined).
(The term “blend” is generally used
when referring to consonants. A
dipthong, described below, is the
vowel equivalent.)
Digraphs
ch, ph, sh, th, wh, tch,
gh (final position only),
ng (final position only)
etc.
Two consonant letters that together
make a new sound.
Trick to help you remember:
A digraph makes me laugh. The last
two letters in digraph (ph) and in laugh
(gh) are connected to form two
completely new sounds.
ai, ay, oa, ee, ea
Generalization: “When two vowels
go walking, the first one does the
talking and says its name”.
These combinations of vowels
together make one new sound.
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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CONSONANTS
VOWELS
Silent “E”
When a short word ends with an “e”,
the first vowel usually has the long
sound and the final “e” is silent.
Word or syllable patterns that follow
this generalization:
VCe (ape)
CVCe (cape)
CCVCe (brave)
“R-Controlled
Vowels” or
“Vowels followed by
r
”
When a vowel letter is followed by
“r”, the vowel sound is neither long
nor short (it is different!).
Examples: “ar” in car, “or” in for, “ir”
in bird
Diphthongs
A blend of vowel sounds, where
each sound is still heard.
The two most agreed upon vowel
combinations are “oi” in boil and
“ou” in mouth or ouch. The words
“toy” and “cow” are also considered
to contain diphthongs (ow and oy).
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Approaches to Phonics Instruction
Synthetic vs. Analytic Approaches to Phonics Instruction:
Synthetic Phonics:
• a part-to-whole phonics approach to reading instruction in which the student learns the sounds
represented by letters and letter combinations, blends these sounds to pronounce words, and
finally identifies which phonic generalizations apply. . .
5
Example: Teaching
ai
vowel digraph using a synthetic approach
o Students are introduced to a new phonics pattern (the vowel digraph ai) through
explicit and direct instruction followed by blending individual letters and letter
combinations into a new word.
Analytic Phonics:
• a whole-to-part approach to word study in which the student is first taught a number of sight
words and then relevant phonic generalizations, which are subsequently applied to other words;
deductive phonics. See also whole-word phonics.
6
Example: Teaching
ai
vowel digraph using an analytic approach
o Students are introduced to a new phonics pattern by comparing the whole words ran
and rain and are prompted to notice the change in the vowel pattern and in the
pronunciation of the two words.
What do you notice?
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Researched-Based Sequence of Instruction for Phonics
7
(According to Chall)
Early/Beginning Readers
Phonics instruction begins with words containing short vowel sounds. These words
begin with single consonant letters and then include consonant blends (e.g. cast) and
digraphs (e.g. chat). Beginning readers (typically in late kindergarten through grade 1)
learn consistent phonics generalizations. In other words, they learn to read words that
follow predictable patterns.
CVC CVCC CCVC CCVCC
cat cast trip stick
sip tent twig truck
bug lift ship twist
map fist chat blend
The words listed above are also known as closed syllables. They end in a consonant
and contain a short vowel sound.
Next, children are introduced to LONG VOWEL PATTERNS.
CVCe: The “Silent e” Pattern
same
late
bike
CVVC: Words with Vowel Digraphs
rain
team
bait
train
chain
toast
reach
speech
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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SIGHT WORDS
Children at this stage also begin to learn a bank of sight words. Usually the term
“sight words” are used interchangeably with “high frequency words”. These are words
that appear so often in the texts children read (and write!) that it is more efficient to
memorize these words and know them with automaticity. Many of these words are
also irregular (they cannot be decoded following phonics generalizations).
Examples of sight words for beginning readers:
I, me, you, mom, play, the
Examples of sight words for more proficient readers:
because, friend, there, when, could, should, always
Note: The word “sight words” can also refer to any word an individual child knows
automatically by sight. A child’s “sight word vocabulary” refers to the bank of words
an individual knows with automaticity.
Transitional Readers (typically 2
nd
grade and up)
Students at this level begin to see lots of words that are not necessarily in their oral
vocabulary. The patterns may be consistent, but the features become more complex
and many words are now multi-syllable. The derivation of these words may indicate
their meaning, pronunciation, and spelling.
spoil
place
bright
shopping
carries
chewed
shower
bottle
favor
ripen
cellar
fortunate
pleasure
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Fluency
Reading fluently includes three elements (accuracy, rate and prosody).
Accuracy: The percentage of words read correctly (usually allowing for self-
corrections).
Rate: The speed with which a text is read (Words Per Minute: WPM)
Prosody: The overall “smoothness” of the reading which includes phrasing,
expression and intonation.
Phrasing: I picked up my son and we drove to the soccer field.
Expression: “Wait for me!” exclaimed the child.
Intonation: Is that for me?
To build oral reading fluency, children need massive amounts of practice reading
independent level texts. Independent texts are those with which the student reads
with 95% or greater accuracy and with satisfactory comprehension. With independent
level texts, the reader reads with no more than 5/100 errors (95/100 correct). When
identifying the level of text difficulty appropriate for different purposes, keep in mind
the accuracy rates below:
Independent Level
Instructional Level
Frustration Level
95-100% accuracy
This is the level at which
students should practice
reading independently to
build oral reading fluency.
90-94% accuracy
This is the student’s zone of
proximal development where
small group instruction
(such as guided reading)
or individual instruction is
appropriate.
Below 90% accuracy
There is little evidence to
show that reading
development can occur at
this level of difficulty.
See note below about the place
for reading complex texts at
one’s grade level, even if the
text level is at the reader’s
“frustration level.”*
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What strategies support oral reading fluency?
• Repeated readings of familiar texts
• Echo reading
• Choral reading
• Reader’s theater
Why is fluency so important?
• With greater fluency students can focus their cognitive resources on the
meaning of the text; they cannot focus on the meaning if they are have a slow
rate (word-by-word reading). They cannot focus on the meaning if they are
struggling to identify the words on the page.
The place for reading complex texts even if they are at a “Frustration Level”:
To develop proficient readers (readers who read fluently and comprehend deeply),
readers need instruction that is differentiated. Reading instruction will be most
effective when readers are instructed individually and in small groups with texts that
have a slight degree of difficulty (these are the instructional level texts identified in the
chart above).
That said, all children (regardless of their identified reading levels) should have access
to complex texts—texts with the language, vocabulary, concepts and content
identified as appropriate for the grade level. The teacher’s read-aloud provides such
access as does close reading, a method by which the teacher engages children in
repeated readings of short sections of text, providing modeling and scaffolding with
each successive reading.
This emphasis on reading complex texts is a foundation of the Common Core State
Standards (see the Introduction):
The Reading standards place equal emphasis on the sophistication of what
students read and the skill with which they read. Standard 10 defines a grade-
by-grade “staircase” of increasing text complexity that rises from beginning
reading to the college and career readiness level. Whatever they are reading,
students must also show a steadily growing ability to discern more from and
make fuller use of text, including making an increasing number of connections
among ideas and between texts, considering a wider range of textual evidence,
and becoming more sensitive to inconsistencies, ambiguities, and poor
reasoning in texts.
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Section 0004: Understand Word Analysis Skills and
Strategies
✓ The development of word analysis skills and strategies in addition to phonics, including
structural analysis
✓ Interrelationships between word analysis skills, fluency, and reading comprehension
✓ Identification of common morphemes (e.g., base words, roots, inflections and other affixes)
✓ Recognition of common prefixes (e.g. un-, re-, pre-), and suffixes (-tion, -able) and their
meanings
✓ Knowledge of Latin and Greek roots that form English words
✓ Use of syllabication as a word identification strategy
✓ Analysis of syllables and morphemes in relation to spelling patterns
✓ Techniques for identifying compound words
✓ Identification of homographs (i.e., words that are spelled the same but have different
meanings and may be pronounced differently [e.g.. bow, part of a ship/bow, to bend from
the waist; tear, a drop of water from the eye/tear, to rip])
✓ Use of context clues (e.g., semantic, syntactic) to help identify words and to verify
pronunciation and meaning of words
✓ Development of word analysis and fluency in individual students (e.g., English Language
Learners, struggling readers through highly proficient readers).
Terminology
Morpheme: any unit in a word is a morpheme (in the word dogs, “dog” and the “s,” are both
morphemes)
Base Word: A base-word is usually a simple word from which you can build a family of words
around it. If you start with “place” you can say places, placing, placings, replace, placement, etc.
Root Word: Root word refers to the origin of a word. For example, “locus” means place in
Latin. From this root word derives words such as local, locate, locality, relocation and phrases
like “in loco parentis.”
Prefix: Morpheme added to the beginning of the word
Suffix: Morpheme added to the end of the word
Affix: Prefixes, suffixes and inflectional endings
Also see homograph, homonym and homophone in the Glossary section
Official Massachusetts Tests for Educator Licensure (MTEL) test objectives and preparation materials appear on the MTEL Website at
www.mtel.nesinc.com. Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliate(s). All rights reserved. Evaluation Systems, Pearson, P.O.
Box 226, Amherst, MA 01004.
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
34
Analysis of Word Structure: When Decoding Isn’t Enough
When reading multisyllabic words, readers may use phonics generalizations to decode--“sound out”-
- individual syllables or parts of a longer word; however, decoding phoneme-by-phoneme is simply not enough.
When encountering multisyllabic words, readers now need to draw on a host of additional strategies
to identify unfamiliar words and they need to be able to break apart these unfamiliar words
efficiently and strategically. For example, they need to identify smaller words within larger words,
notice roots and bases, prefixes and suffixes and so on. They may also break apart words by syllable.
Not only do these skills help the reader identify the word on the page, structural analysis strategies
help the reader understand the meaning of the word itself by breaking apart words into “meaning-
bearing parts”.
PEDOMETER
BIOLOGY
MISFORTUNE
Some examples of generalizations taught with multisyllabic words:
Closed Syllables
When a short word (or syllable) with one vowel letter ends in a
consonant, the vowel sound is usually short. Word patterns that follow
this rule are:
VC (am) CVCC (damp)
CVC (ham) CCVC (stem)
Open Syllables
When a word or a syllable has only one vowel and it comes at the end of
the word or syllable, it usually creates the long vowel sound.
CV (he, me) CV-CVC (ti-ger, na-tion, hu-man)
Inflectional Endings
Affixes added to the end of words to indicate number (ox/oxen,
bush/bushes) or tense (playing, played, plays)
Syllabication
Examples:
sum-mer pre-vent um-brel-la
Compound Words
Examples:
pancake shoelace
Contractions
Examples:
have not: haven’t can not: can’t
Prefixes/Suffixes
Examples:
re- un- -able -tion
Schwa
An unstressed vowel sound, such as the first sound in “around”
and the last vowel sound in “custom”. In the examples below, the bold
part of the word is the accented (stressed) syllable.
Would you present the present to the guest of honor?
It is a good idea to record your expenses so you have a record of them.
8
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Key Principles of Structural Analysis:
Reading, Spelling and
Pronouncing Multisyllabic Words
9
1) When spelling unfamiliar multisyllabic words the speller needs to keep in mind that
relying on sounds of the word parts for spelling is no longer as reliable as it was with
single syllables.
Example: Consider the words dollar, faster, actor. The ending sound is the same, but the
spelling is different.
What should you emphasize?
Help children learn that while they do not know the spelling of
the whole word, they likely know a part of the word. Slow down on the less familiar part (in this
case, the unaccented syllable).
2) Students need to pay close attention when joining syllables (syllable juncture). One key
principle: to mark the short vowel, double the consonant.
Example: Tigger vs. tiger; gripped vs. griped; hu-man; mam-mal.
What should you emphasize?
Pay attention to the vowel sound of the first syllable. Determining whether it is a long or short
vowel sound will help you decide on the spelling.
3) Accent and stress play a key role in spelling multisyllabic words. There are no fixed
rules that govern the spelling of these words, but there are some common
generalizations…
Example: Verbs and adjectives tend to end in –en (waken, golden) whereas nouns tend to end in –on
(prison, dragon). Comparative adjectives tend to end in -er (smaller, taller).
Some spellings are simply more common than others:
Example there are over 1,000 words ending in –le, but only 200 that end in –el.
What should you emphasize?
Help students notice the most common patterns and
generalizations through sorts and discussions.
4) Words that are related in meaning are often related in spelling, despite changes in
sound.
Example: Consider the following spelling: COMPISITION. The
o
in the word
compose
is the clue
to its spelling.
Similarly, DECESION is spelled with an
i
instead of an e because it comes from the word decide.
What should you emphasize?
By thinking of a word that is related to one you’re trying to spell,
you will often discover a helpful clue.
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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5) Polysyllabic (multisyllabic) words often have unstressed syllables in which the vowel is
reduced to the schwa sound, but this sound can be written in several different ways.
What should you emphasize?
Remembering the root word will often help the speller choose
the correct spelling.
6) The suffix pronounced /shun/ can be spelled several ways and can cause the
consonant or vowel sound to alternate, changing the pronunciation.
Example: Note the different spellings in protection, invasion, admission, and musician.
Also note how the suffix can affect the base word and pronunciation in these interesting
ways: detect/detection (the /t/ sound becomes a /sh/ sound); and decide/decision
(where the /i/ sound moves from long to short).
What should you emphasize?
There are MANY familiar words to examine. By noticing the
patterns in these familiar words, students will begin to see the generalizations that emerge. These
generalizations are also included in the chart below, but it is recommended that students spend
lots of time examining these patterns before sharing generalizations with them.
Suffix Generalizations:
1. Base words that end in –ct or –ss just add –ion (traction, expression)
2. Base words that end in –ic add –ian (magician)
3. Base words that end in –te drop the e and add –ion (translation)
4. Base words that end in –ce drop the e and add a –tion (reduce/reduction)
5. Base words that end in –de and –it drop those letters and add –sion or –ssion
(decide/decision, admit/admission).
6. Sometimes –ation is added to the base word, which causes little trouble for spellers
because it can be heard (transport, transportation)
A PROCESS FOR ANALYZING WORDS
Notice the Spelling (the patterns of letters):
1) Look at the roots/bases. Is there a pattern in how they are spelled? For example, do they
end with a vowel? One consonant? A consonant blend or digraph?
2) Look at the prefix/suffix. Is there a pattern in how they are spelled? Does the spelling
change depending on the root or base?
Notice the Pronunciation (the sound)
1) Does the pronunciation change when the spelling changes?
2) Does the pronunciation stay the same even if the spelling change? (In other words, is the
pronunciation reliable?)
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Development of Reading
Comprehension
(27% of the test)
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Section 0005: Understand Vocabulary Development:
✓ The relationship between oral and written vocabulary development and reading
comprehension.
✓ The role of systematic, non-contextual vocabulary strategies (e.g., grouping words based on
conceptual categories and associative meanings) and contextual vocabulary strategies (e.g.
paraphrasing)
✓ The relationship between oral vocabulary and the process of identifying and understanding
written words
✓ Strategies for promoting oral language development and listening comprehension (e.g.,
read-alouds, word explanation strategies)
✓ Knowledge of common sayings, proverbs and idioms (e.g. It’s raining cats and dogs; Better safe
than sorry.)
✓ Knowledge of foreign words and abbreviations commonly used in English (e.g. RSVP)
✓ Criteria for selecting vocabulary words
✓ Strategies for clarifying and extending a reader’s understanding of unfamiliar words
encountered in connected text (e.g. use of semantic and syntactic cues, use of word maps,
use of dictionary)
✓ Strategies for promoting comprehension across the curriculum by expanding knowledge of
academic language, including conventions of standard English grammar and usage,
differences between the conventions of spoken and written standard English, general
academic vocabulary and content-area vocabulary (e.g., focus on key words)
✓ The importance of frequent, extensive, varied reading experiences in the development of
academic language and vocabulary
✓ Development of academic language and vocabulary knowledge and skills in individual
students (e.g., English Language Learners, struggling readers through highly proficient
readers).
Official Massachusetts Tests for Educator Licensure (MTEL) test objectives and preparation materials appear on the
MTEL Website at www.mtel.nesinc.com. Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliate(s). All rights
reserved. Evaluation Systems, Pearson, P.O. Box 226, Amherst, MA 01004.
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
39
Terminology:
Oral Vocabulary: The vocabulary one can use appropriately in speech and can understand when
heard aloud
Written Vocabulary: The words one can understand when seen in written form.
Semantic Mapping: A strategy that visually displays the relationship among words and helps to
categorize them.
Teaching Strategies:
Review Vocabulary section (pages 33-45) in Put Reading First.
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Vocabulary Development: Overview
Vocabulary relates to understanding the MEANINGS of words.
Why is vocabulary so important to reading development?
• Teaching vocabulary improves students’ comprehension.
• Students’ ability to infer the meaning of the text is strongly related to their understanding of
the meanings of words.
• The ability to read complex texts depends on a strong vocabulary.
Do we have a vocabulary “problem”?
• Students need but lack deep and meaningful understanding of words.
o There are three levels of word knowledge: unknown, acquainted, and established
10
o Words at the established level are words that are easily, rapidly and automatically
understand.
o It is critical that we build students’ established knowledge of words
• The more children are read to from birth, the more words in their oral and listening
vocabularies.
• Reading aloud is also key for reading development. Many of the words in books do not arise
naturally in discussions; wide reading builds rich vocabulary knowledge.
• A child’s background knowledge also strongly affects their exposure to vocabulary. For
example, consider children who lack knowledge of city life who live in rural settings and vice
versa. Children are exposed to different words depending on their life experiences.
• Many children can appear to be strong readers because they read grade level texts with a high
degree of accuracy; however, many of these same children may have little understanding of
what they read.
o When accuracy is strong and comprehension is weak, start by assessing whether or
not the student understands the meanings of words in context. Lack of vocabulary
knowledge is often the missing factor.
Strategies for Teaching Vocabulary Effectively
Effective instruction in vocabulary involves teaching both selected words and strategies for determining the meaning
of unfamiliar words.
• Provide explicit instruction in selected words that will likely be seen in other contexts
o Semantic maps and webs are effective for helping children make connections
between known words and new words; graphic organizers provide a visual image of
these connections and help children retain the meanings (see example on the next
page)
o Child-friendly definitions help children understand words in a meaningful context.
For example, consider the dictionary definitions for pedantic:
▪ Random House, Webster’s Dictionary: overly concerned with minute details or
formalisms, esp. in teaching
▪ Child-Friendly Definition: being overly concerned with sticking to unimportant
rules, being “stuffy” and inflexible about the small details of things
o Providing opportunities to discover synonyms and antonyms help to clarify and
expand word knowledge
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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▪ Collins Thesaurus of English Language—Synonyms for “pedantic”: hairsplitting,
particular, formal, precise, fussy, picky (informal); punctilious, priggish,
pedagogic, pompous, erudite, didactic, bookish (formal)
o Providing examples of words that “fit” and “don’t fit” (i.e. providing examples and
“non-examples”) also help students retain definitions
o Providing multiple exposures of these words also help students retain word
meanings
Semantic Map (example)
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• Provide explicit instruction in strategies to determine the meaning of unfamiliar words
o Use of context clues
o Analysis of word parts (morphemic analysis) such as prefixes, suffixes, roots and
bases
o Dictionary skills
• Provide explicit instruction of technical (“domain specific”) vocabulary important to
understanding content in social studies and science (e.g. lava, proton, atmosphere, colony)
• Provide opportunities for children to hear books read aloud.
o Choose books that are ABOVE the students’ own reading level. Point out the
meanings of important and a few selected words in context.
• Provide opportunities for children to read independently; wide reading across genres exposes
students to words that do not appear in oral conversation.
o A great deal of vocabulary can be learned from just reading. Even “children who
read just ten minutes a day outside of school experience substantially higher rates
of vocabulary growth between second and fifth grade than children who do little
reading.”
11
• Provide opportunities for children to talk about what they read and what is read to them;
talk supports vocabulary development and comprehension.
• Provide opportunities for children to make a connection between known words in speaking
and the less familiar written form.
o An effective strategy is to make sure children see the word at the same time that it is
pronounced.
• Ensure that vocabulary instruction is active and engaging; engage children in developing
word consciousness.
• Pair reading and writing (each supports the other!)
Note: The above strategies are suggested in place of traditional approaches that emphasize rote memorization of
abstract definitions. For example, looking up and writing definitions from the dictionary for a long list of vocabulary
words is not shown to be an effective practice for building vocabulary. Writing new vocabulary words in a sentence, in
most cases, is also not an effective practice.
Some Important Considerations for Beginning Readers:
• Beginning reading instruction should focus on helping children learn to read words already
in their spoken vocabularies
• As children develop as readers they should be taught vocabulary words that are unknown
(but the concept is known), such as “pant” (a dog pants). This is especially important for ELLs
because they have many concepts, but not the words.
• Teach new words that represent new concepts. This is perhaps the most demanding.
When answering multiple choice questions related to vocabulary, consider the purpose:
o Is it to prepare students for content area (e.g. science, history) instruction? If so, teach the
concept words that are unfamiliar and necessary to understand the topic.
o If the question is asking about preparing students to understand literary texts, consider the
words that would be helpful to know in this text, but also in others (words that would
provide more “bang for the buck”). These words are also known as Tier II words (Beck).
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Vocabulary Tiers
By: Isabel Beck
12
The siblings waited anxiously for the news from the
surgeon. When she walked through the doors into the
corridor, they took one look at her face and began to bawl
with elation.
Note how knowledge of Tier II vocabulary words affects one’s
overall comprehension of the passage.
Tier 3
Domain-Specific
Science/History
e.g. volcano, atmosphere
Tier 2
More sophisticated synonyms for words many children
will know
e.g. generous, bawl, whine, infant
Tier 1
Require no instruction; concepts already familiar;
words familiar
e.g. kind, cry, baby
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Section 0006: Understand How to Apply Reading
Comprehension Skills and Strategies to
Imaginative/Literary Texts
✓ Knowledge of reading as a process to construct meaning
✓ Knowledge of reading comprehension and analysis skills for reading literature (e.g., analyzing
a text’s key ideas and details, interpreting an author’s use of craft and structure, integrating
knowledge and ideas from multiple literary works)
✓ Knowledge of levels of reading comprehension (i.e., literal, inferential and evaluative) and
strategies for promoting comprehension of imaginative/literary texts at all three levels
✓ Strategies for promoting close reading of imaginative/literary texts
✓ Development of literary response skills (e.g. connecting elements in a text to prior
knowledge and other sources; using evidence from a text to support analyses, develop
summaries, and draw inferences and conclusions)
✓ Development of literary analysis skills (e.g. identifying features of different literary genres,
analyzing story elements, analyzing character development, interpreting figurative language,
identifying literary allusions, analyzing the author’s point of view)
✓ Use of comprehension strategies to support effective reading (e.g., rereading, visualizing,
reviewing, self-monitoring and other metacognitive strategies)
✓ Use of oral language activities to promote comprehension (e.g. retelling, discussion)
✓ The role of reading fluency in facilitating comprehension
✓ Use of writing activities to promote literary response and analysis (e.g., creating story maps
and other relevant graphic organizers; comparing and contrasting different versions of a
story, different books by the same author, or the treatment of similar themes and topics in
different texts or genres)
✓ Development of reading comprehension skills and strategies for individual students (e.g.,
English Language Learners, struggling readers through highly proficient readers)
Official Massachusetts Tests for Educator Licensure (MTEL) test objectives and preparation materials appear on the MTEL Website at
www.mtel.nesinc.com. Copyright © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliate(s). All rights reserved. Evaluation Systems, Pearson, P.O.
Box 226, Amherst, MA 01004.
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
45
Terminology:
Literal, Inferential and Evaluative Questions (see page that follows)
Metacognitive Strategies: These are strategies that help the reader become more aware of their own
reading process, their thoughts as they read, and help the reader to have more control over their
reading (e.g. noticing when comprehension breaks down and using “fix-up” strategies, such as
rereading or paraphrasing, to comprehend).
Graphic Organizers: Visual “maps” or diagrams that help the reader organize the information they
read. A story map is one type of graphic organizer. It allows the reader to organize the elements of a
story (characters, setting, events, problem, solution).
Teaching Strategies:
Review Comprehension Section in Put Reading First.
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Best Practices in Comprehension Instruction
Reading = Thinking
Reading=Actively engaging in making meaning from texts
o Comprehension is not just “caught” (assessed); it is taught. One of the most effective
methods for teaching students how to comprehend is by demonstrating one’s own thinking
through a “think aloud”. Through this method the teacher talks out loud about his/her
thinking as she engages with a portion of a text, demonstrating her strategies and ideas while
making meaning.
o Traditional post-reading activities (e.g. answering a series of questions at the end of chapter
or book or even completing creative projects such as dioramas) are not considered effective
ways to strengthen students’ comprehension skills.
o Instead, conversation is at the heart of effective comprehension instruction. Teachers
engage children in whole class, small group and one-on-one conversations about texts.
Written response to reading occurs as students move into upper elementary grades, but these
written responses have a more authentic feel (see examples below). With both conversation
and written responses, students are expected to support their ideas with text evidence.
▪ Primary grade children (K-2) learn how to comprehend and demonstrate
comprehension, mostly through conversation among peers. A teacher may
engage children in an interactive read-aloud in which children are prompted
to talk with partners during key parts in the text. These ideas are then shared
as a class. Conversation about texts is also an important part of guided
reading.
▪ Upper grade children (3-6) also develop comprehension through conversation
among peers. During these grades, the teacher will likely still read aloud and
engage students in whole-class conversations, but students also engage in
comprehension conversations in increasingly independent ways (in the form
of book clubs, literature circles). They also begin to demonstrate their
comprehension through writing, sometimes by jotting their thinking on post-
it notes or by developing written response to ideas in reader response
journals and reader’s notebooks.
Example of Think-Aloud: Blackout
As children progress through the grades, they engage with texts in increasingly sophisticated ways,
but the goals for each grade are essentially the same.
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Literary Response Skills:
Examples: Retelling and Summarizing
Readers should be able to retell (and eventually summarize) the key ideas and details from a story
that has been read aloud to them or that they have read independently. Retelling/summarizing these
key elements is the same as demonstrating knowledge of story grammar (the elements of stories).
Primary grade children (K-2) may:
o Create a story map with their teacher and peers that identifies the key story elements (setting,
characters, key events, problem, solution)
o Put items representing a story into a sequence (e.g. straw, hay, bricks for The Three Little
Pigs)
o Discuss key events as part of a whole class post-reading conversation
o Create a simple summary through interactive or shared writing (in which the teacher leads
the class in creating an enlarged class-created summary)
Upper grade children (3-6) may:
o Discuss the key story elements as part of a whole class conversation
o Summarize a text in a one-on-one conference
o Write a summary in a response journal
Examples of Literary Analysis:
Primary Grades: analyzing character feelings, character traits, lesson/moral and supporting one’s
analysis with text evidence
Upper Elementary: analyzing character traits, character change, character motivation, cause/effect
of events, problem and resolution, central message/themes and supporting one’s analysis with text
evidence
o Plot vs. Theme
o Plot: What happened (key events)
o Theme: What the book is about (the “big ideas”) …for example, what is the author
saying about Friendship? Love? Courage? Growing Up?
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Craft and Structure: Analysis of the text as an “object”—how it’s structured (e.g. chronological,
use of flashbacks); who is telling the story (who is the narrator? whose point of view?) and the
impact of that perspective on the story; the writing techniques (writing style) the author employs
(e.g. how the author might slow down the action to build suspense or use dialogue for humor); how
the author might use particular words or phrases to convey mood/tone/develop a theme; use of
literary devices (figurative language, symbolism)
Close Reading: While there are many interpretations of close reading, the one espoused by the
Foundations of Reading test focuses on a sequence of repeated readings of an excerpt from a text
or short “chunk” of text. Through each successive reading, students are guided to focus on a
different aspect of the reading (such as the meaning of selected words and phrases) in order to form
a deeper interpretation of the text. This process is used to support children in reading complex texts
at grade level.
Development of literary response skills and Development of literary analysis skills
https://study.com/academy/lesson/literary-response-analysis-skills-types-examples.html
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Levels of Comprehension
Levels (from the
more basic to the
more complex)
Definition
Examples
Literal
--Often
determined
through a retelling
in which the
student can repeat
back the sequence
of events and
identify key story
elements (e.g. who,
what, when,
where)
Information that is stated
explicitly in the text such as
who, what, when, where,
why.
You can find the
information “right there” on
the page…just read the lines.
Excerpt from Text:
It was a bright, sunny day in April, and the flowers
were in bloom.
When does the story take place? A sunny
day in April.
What was in bloom?
Flowers.
Inferential
Information that is implied
within the text, but not
directly or explicitly stated.
The reader needs to “search
and find” clues within the
text and then read between the
lines.
Excerpt from Text:
Annie burst out of the house in her bare feet. She
took a deep breath, filling her lungs with the warm
air and let her toes discover the fresh grass for the
first time in months.
When do you think the story takes
place? Provide evidence. The story
probably takes place in the beginning of
spring. The fact that Annie burst out of the
house may indicate that she was excited by
the change in season. The text indicates that
she didn’t wear shoes (so it had to be warm
enough) and that she hadn’t been outside in
bare feet “for months”.
Evaluative
The reader needs to use
information from the text
and their own world
experiences to form a
judgment.
The question might sound like this:
Do you think (character in the text) made
the right choice for her family? Explain
using text evidence.
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Before-During-After Reading Strategies
13
Before Reading:
The reader develops a plan of action by:
• Activating and building upon prior knowledge and experiences
• Predicting what text is about based on text features, visuals, and text type
• Setting a purpose for reading
An Anticipation Guide is an example of a Before Reading Strategy.
During Reading:
The reader maintains and monitors a plan of action by:
• Connecting new texts with prior knowledge and experiences
• Checking predictions for accuracy
• Forming sensory images
• Making inferences
• Determining key vocabulary
• Interpreting the traits of main characters
• Self-monitoring own difficulty in decoding and comprehending text
• Interpreting diagrams, maps, and charts
• Posing how, why and what questions to understand and/or interpret text
• Recognizing cause-effect relationships and drawing conclusions
• Noticing when comprehension problems arise
A Character Map is an example of a During Reading Strategy.
After Reading:
The reader evaluates a plan of action by:
• Discussing accuracy of predictions
• Summarizing the key ideas
• Connecting and comparing information from texts to experience and knowledge
• Explaining and describing new ideas and information in own words
• Retelling story in own words including setting, characters, and sequence of important events
• Discussing and comparing authors and illustrators
• Reflecting on the strategies that helped the most and least and why
A Semantic Map is an example of an After Reading Strategy.
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Literacy Guide:
14
STRATEGIES FOR SUCCESSFUL READERS AND WRITERS: Before,
During and After Reading
Successful readers and writers need to learn and practice a number of strategies to use Before,
During, and After Reading.
The following pre-reading activities can help students to:
• Activate Background Knowledge and Make Connections
• Stimulate Predictions
• Form a Purpose for Reading
Predicting:
• Examine the cover illustration (if there is one) and read the title of new book. Ask child to
predict what it might be about based on either the cover picture, the title, or both. If the title
and illustration are not helpful in giving the student a sense of what the story is about, you
can provide a brief summary of the book. For example, when looking at a book with a
picture of a cat on the front, you can say: “This story is about a cat that moves to a new
house and has some adventures while trying to make new friends.”
Activating Background Knowledge:
• Ask the student to tell you what he or she knows about the subject of the story or if he or
she has had similar experiences, or heard or read a story like this or by same author. “You
said you have a cat. Tell me what your cat does all day and who its friends are. What kind of
friends do you think the cat in this book might find?” if the topic is totally unfamiliar,
reconsider book choice, or take extra time to build the necessary background knowledge
through some kind of concrete experiences. For example, if you choose a book about a farm
and the student has never been to a farm you may want to begin by looking at pictures of
farms and farm animals, and having a brief discussion about what kinds of things happen on
farms: what animals live there, what things grow on farms, etc.
Conducting Picture Walk:
• With Emergent and Early readers conduct a “Picture Walk” through the book, or chapter,
by covering the print, and encouraging or guiding the student in a discussion of what could
be going on based on the pictures. If there is vocabulary that may not be familiar to child
such as “cupboard” or “bonnet” point the words out and explain them in connection with
the teeny tiny woman is putting on her hat, except in this book it’s called a ‘bonnet’ (pointing
to the word) which is another word for hat. She is putting on her teeny tiny bonnet. Do you
think she is getting ready to go somewhere? “In your discussion of the pictures, be sure to
use as much of the actual book language as possible, especially if there are repeated patterns
or refrains. (The Teeny Tiny Woman, Barbara Seeling).
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Noticing Structure of the text:
• Where appropriate, point out or help the child notice the structure of the text and connect it
with other similarly structured texts heard or read. “Yes, this is a fairy tale. We’ve read
several fairy tales together. What do you know about fairy tales? What have you noticed that
is the same about the three tales we read?”
Forming Purpose for Reading:
• Formulate and encourage the student to come up with two or three predictions or questions
before reading. “This is a story about a boy who wants a dog, but his mother won’t let him
have one. What do you think he is going to do first? Why do you think that?” “You already
know a lot about dinosaurs. What are some things you think you might learn when reading
this book?”
ASKING QUESTIONS
An important strategy to use before, during and after reading to enhance interest and
comprehension
15
Engaging students in a dialogue about something they are about to read can clarify their thinking
and help you find out what they already know or expect from the material. Questions and discussion
also clarify understanding during and after reading. One way to begin this dialogue is through asking
questions that elicit responses reflecting the student’s thoughts and understandings about the
reading.
Too often questions are used only at the end of reading, asked by the teacher or tutor to check
comprehension. In fact, successful readers ask themselves questions throughout the reading process.
Beginning readers need modeling and practice to learn how to do this.
Effective questions encourage real thinking, not just yes or no answers.
Questions before reading should help the reader:
• Make connections between background knowledge and the topic of the book: “This book
is about Anansi the Spider: do you remember the other Anansi book we read? What kind of
character is Anansi? What kinds of things did he do in the story? How do you suppose he
will behave in this book?”
• Set a purpose for reading: “Here is a new book about sea turtles. What are some things that
you would like to learn about these creatures?”
• Make predictions: “The title of this book is The Missing Tooth, (Cole, 1988). Who do you
suppose the two boys on the cover are, and what do you think this book might be about?
What happens to you when you lose a tooth?”
Questions during reading should help the reader:
• Clarify and review what has happened so far: “What are some of the things that made Arlo
and Robby such good friends?”
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• Confirm or create new predictions: “Now that one boy has lost a tooth, so they aren’t
both the same, what’s going to happen? I wonder if they will stay friends:”
• Critically evaluate the story and make personal connections: “Could this really happen
– that two good friends could have a fight because one of them had something the other
wanted? How would you feel if you were Robby? What would you do?”
• Make connections with other experiences or books: “Does this remind you of another
story/character, what happened in that story? Could that happen here?”
• Monitor the child’s reading for meaning and accuracy: “Did that word ‘horned’ make
sense? What is a ‘horned toad’?”
Questions after reading will help:
• Reinforce the concept that reading is for understanding the meaning of the text, and
making connections: “In this story about Amy’s first day in school how did she feel before
going into her classroom? How did you feel on your first day?”
• Model ways of thinking Through and organizing the information they have taken in from
reading a text: “What did Amy’s teacher do when she walked into the classroom? How does
Amy feel now? How do you know that?”
• Encourage critical thinking and personal response: “What do you think might have
happened if the teacher had not done that? Why do you think the author decided to write
this story? Would you have done what Amy did?”
• Build awareness of common themes and structures in literature: “What other story or
character does this sound like? What parts are the same? What parts are different?”
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Section 0007: Understand How to Apply Reading
Comprehension Skills and Strategies to
Informational/Expository Texts
✓ Knowledge of reading comprehension and analysis skills for reading informational text (e.g.,
explaining key ideas and details in an informational text, analyzing the craft and structure
used in an expository or persuasive text, integrating knowledge and ideas from multiple print
or digital sources)
✓ Knowledge of levels of reading comprehension (i.e., literal, inferential and evaluative) and
strategies for promoting comprehension of informational/expository texts at all three levels
✓ Strategies for promoting close reading of informational/expository texts, including strategies
for identifying point of view, distinguishing facts from opinions, analyzing multiple accounts
of the same event or topic, determining how an author uses reasons and evidence to support
particular points in a text, and detecting faulty reasoning in informational/expository texts
✓ Use of reading strategies for different texts and purposes (e.g., adjusting reading rate based
on text difficulty, skimming/scanning)
✓ Use of comprehension strategies to support effective reading (e.g., rereading, visualizing,
self-questioning, paraphrasing)
✓ Use of oral language activities to promote comprehension (e.g., using evidence in an
informational/expository text to explain concepts, events, ideas, or procedures)
✓ The role of reading fluency in facilitating comprehension of informational/expository texts
✓ Use of writing activities to promote comprehension (e.g. student-generated questioning,
note-taking, outlining, summarizing, semantic maps)
✓ Knowledge of text structures (e.g. chronological, comparison/contrast, cause/effect)
✓ Use of text features (e.g. index, glossary), graphic features (e.g., illustrations, charts, maps),
and reference materials
✓ Application of comprehension strategies to electronic texts
✓ Development of students’ ability to apply reading comprehension skills for varied purposes
✓ Development of the reading comprehension skills and strategies of individual students (e.g.,
English Language Learners, struggling readers through highly proficient readers).
Official Massachusetts Tests for Educator Licensure (MTEL) test objectives and preparation materials appear on the
MTEL Website at www.mtel.nesinc.com. Copyright ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliate(s). All rights
reserved. Evaluation Systems, Pearson, P.O. Box 226, Amherst, MA 01004.
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Terminology:
Informational/Expository Texts: These are factual materials for science, social studies, and other
content areas, as well as “concept books” for the very young dealing with the alphabet or
relationships of time, space, amount. These books explain something to children or teach them how
to do something.
Teaching Strategies:
Review Comprehension Section in Put Reading First.
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Informational/Expository Texts
Informational texts…
• Have a purpose to convey information about the natural or social world
• Enables nonlinear reading
• May have an index, table of contents, headings
• Diagrams, charts, graphs, captions
• Realistic illustrations, photographs
• Timeless verbs, generic nouns
• Specialized vocabulary, italicization, boldfacing
• Particular text structures
Analysis of Informational Texts:
Determining the main idea(s) and supporting details (evidence) is a crucial aspect of reading for
meaning within an informational text. Synthesis of ideas across texts is another.
Craft and Structure
Analysis of the text as an “object”—noticing how it’s structured (true/false; cause/effect; pro/con;
sequential etc.); determining the author’s purpose and perspective; analyzing the writing techniques
(writing style) and use of text features the author employs for a particular effect; analyzing how the
author might use particular words or phrases to convey a point of view
Close Reading: While there are many interpretations of close reading, the one espoused by the
Foundations of Reading test focuses on a sequence of repeated readings of an excerpt from a text
or short “chunk” of text. Through each successive reading, students are guided to focus on a
different aspect of the reading (such as the meaning of selected words and phrases) in order to form
a deeper interpretation of the text. This process is used to support children in reading complex texts
at grade level. Close reading of informational texts allows reader to identify point of view,
distinguish fact from opinion, determine whether a text has faulty (or biased) reasoning
Unique Reading Strategies of Informational Texts: adjusting reading rate based on text
difficulty, skimming/scanning)
Official Massachusetts Tests for Educator Licensure (MTEL) test objectives and preparation materials appear on the MTEL Website at
www.mtel.nesinc.com. Copyright ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliate(s). All rights reserved. Evaluation Systems, Pearson, P.O.
Box 226, Amherst, MA 01004.
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Informational Text Structure: Definitions & Signal Words
(Adapted from Dole, 1997)
Type of Informational
Text Structure
Definition
Signal Words
Chronological/Sequential/
Temporal
A main idea supported by details,
which must be in a particular
order.
Until, before, after, next,
finally, lastly, first/last, then,
on (dates), at (time)
Descriptive/Enumerative
A major idea supported by a list
of details or examples, which
may occur in any order.
For example, for instance, in
particular, in addition. Note:
Varies with text reads more
like fiction.
Cause and Effect
The supporting details give the
causes of a main idea or the
supporting details are the results
produced by the main idea.
Since, because, this lead to,
on account of, due to, may
be due to, for this reason,
consequently, then, so,
therefore, thus
Compare/Contrast
The supporting details of two or
more main ideas indicate how
those concepts are similar or
different.
In like manner, likewise,
similarly, the difference
between, as opposed to,
after all, however, and yet,
but nevertheless
Problem/Solution
A subordinate structure that
provides a problem and solution,
which may employ any (or all) of
the preceding structures.
One reason for that, a
solution, a problem
Question/Answer
A subordinate structure that
provides a question and answer,
which may employ any (or all)
of the first four structures.
How, when, what, where,
why , who, how, many, the
best estimate, it could be
that, one may conclude
Note: Most informational text employs more than one text structure.
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Reading Assessment and
Instruction
(18% of the test)
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Section 0008: Understand Formal and Informal
Methods for Assessing Reading Development:
✓ The use of data and ongoing reading assessment to adjust instruction to meet students’
reading needs
✓ The characteristics and uses of standardized criterion-referenced and norm-referenced tests
to assess reading development and identify reading difficulties
✓ Concepts of validity, reliability, and bias in testing
✓ The characteristics and uses of formal and informal reading-related assessments (e.g.
assessment of phonemic awareness, miscue analyses, Informal Reading Inventories, running
records, use of rubrics, portfolio assessment, assessment of authentic tasks)
✓ Characteristics and uses of group verses individual reading assessments
✓ Techniques for assessing particular reading skills (e.g. oral or written retellings to assess
comprehension, dictated word lists to test letter-sound knowledge)
✓ Awareness of text leveling
✓ Awareness of the challenges and supports in a text (e.g. pictures, predictability, decodability)
✓ Techniques for determining students’ independent, instructional and frustration reading
levels
✓ Assessment of the reading development of individual students
Official Massachusetts Tests for Educator Licensure (MTEL) test objectives and preparation materials appear on the MTEL Website at
www.mtel.nesinc.com. Copyright ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliate(s). All rights reserved. Evaluation Systems, Pearson, P.O.
Box 226, Amherst, MA 01004.
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
60
Terminology:
Cloze Procedure: A versatile, informal instrument for use in determining a student’s reading level,
use of context while reading, and knowledge of vocabulary. Sometimes used as an alternative to the
Informal Reading Inventory for determining reading levels, students read a selection in which
random words are deleted a replaced with blank spaces. Students are directed to read the selection
and fill in the blanks with words they think would best complete the sentence.
Ongoing Reading Assessment: Assessment made on a regular basis through a variety of means, both
formal and informal. The purpose is to document progress the student makes in reading, while also
identifying areas that need instruction. “Kid watching” is one important type of ongoing reading
assessment. In this case, notes are made in a systematic way about students’ reading behaviors.
Criterion-Referenced Tests: Tests based on objectives that contain specific conditions, outcomes,
and criteria that are expected for satisfactory completion of the task.
Norm-Referenced Tests: A norm-referenced test (NRT) provides information on how well a student
performs in comparison to an external reference group or norm group.
Miscue Analysis: Analysis of any responses (mistakes) made during oral reading that deviate from
those anticipated
Informal Reading Inventories (IRIs): A compilation of graded reading selections with
comprehension questions accompanying each selection. This inventory is individually administered
to determine the student’s strengths and weaknesses in word recognition and comprehension.
Running Records: The running record is an in-depth observation task that allows the teacher to
determine:
• Text difficulty.
• Student placement in groups or materials.
• The directional movement of the child in reading connected text.
• The child’s ability to coordinate oral language with the visual patterns in text.
• The child’s speed of responding, a measure of the child’s ability to slow oral language
enough to rectify an oral reading error through self-correction.
• They type of cues the child uses to process printed language (meaning, syntax, or visual)
about printed text with another type of information.
• The child’s self-correction behavior
Rubrics: A set of scoring guidelines for evaluating student work.
Portfolio Assessment: Assessment made on the systematic collection of student work for use in
evaluating changes in student performance in reading and language
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Notes on Reading Assessments
16
Individual Assessments
Informal Reading Inventories (IRIs)
• Test grade level passages from which children read aloud
• Primary purpose is to determine a student’s independent reading level and to reveal
processes that the student uses or neglects in decoding print
• By looking at processes (strategies) the student is or is not using, the teacher can then design
appropriate instruction
• Strengths and needs are determined by a post-test analysis of what the child does when
reading aloud
• Typically a word list is used as the initial assessment to determine the appropriate passage at
which to start
• The standard cut-off is 80%. Once the child misses more than 20% of the words from a
particular list, you turn to the reading passages and start a level or two below the highest
level that the child could read.
• Then the child reads aloud and the teacher marks the behavior the student exhibits during
reading (e.g. words the child skips over, inserts, omits, etc)
• The purpose of this assessment is to determine the independent reading level (highest
passage scored at 95% accuracy or above) and the areas of decoding needing attention.
• There may be comprehension questions after the IRI passage is scored. Usually the child is
asked to read again silently, this time focusing on comprehension
• Sometimes this child is asked to retell what was read: “Start at the beginning…”
Running Records
• More flexible, “on the run”
• Can be completed with any text the child is reading
• Check marks on a blank page indicate words read correctly
• Ran/Rat= ran is what the child said; rat is the correct word in the text
Miscue Analysis
• When analyzing on the test, it is important to keep in mind “test reality” vs. “real reality”
(analysis of errors below indicates ways of interpreting according to “test reality”)
• Some types of errors show more progress than others
• Omissions: high numbers show the child is not using any strategies to decode the print
• High number of initial letter attempts and substitutions can reflect that the child has
emerging decoding skills; at least the child is attempting to decode – instruction would then
focus on helping child become more skilled in decoding
• Errors with sight words: children need to memorize these so that they are accurate and
efficient at automatically recognizing these words
• Insertions: shows the children is relying on something other than print while decoding –
according to this model and the test perspective, the most important point is that the child is
not relying sufficiently on the visual (print), regardless of how much meaning they are
deriving from print
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• Self-corrections: in the real world, self-corrections may be a very good sign (the child is self-
monitoring and aware when something doesn’t make sense or sound right). For the test,
however, self-corrections still indicate an area in which the child needs direct skills
instruction so that they can become more automatic and efficient
• Errors and self-corrections indicate the processes students are using while reading to make
and correct mistake. This is where the 3 cueing systems come in:
Meaning/semantics (reading with the meaning in mind): “Does that make sense?
Visual/graphophonics (reading with the print in mind): “Does that look right?
Syntax/grammar (reading with the grammar in mind): “Does that sound right?”
• MSV
• This model (and the test perspective) tends to prescribe skills instruction during this
“learning to read” stage
• This model tends to view all children’s miscues, even their self-corrections, as hindrances to
learning to decode
Group Assessments
Norm-referenced
• 3 key terms to know: reliability, validity, reporting
• Reporting can also be associated with the terms raw score, rank and grade-equivalent
• Reliability means that the test measures things the same way every time it is used
• Validity: does the test measure what it says it measures?
• We need reliability and validity if we are to be able to make accurate comparisons.
• Test conditions also need to be the same.
• Example: a score of “6” is the same in one class vs. another, the same in one state vs.
another
• Raw score: number of the correct items out of the number of items in total.
• Percentile rankings: this makes comparing one student to another easier. A student who was
correct on all items then scored in the 99
th
percentile, which means she did better than 99
percent of the people who took the test.
• 50
th
percentile means a student did better than half and worse than half of all the students
who took it
• Grade equivalent: what does the score mean? This helps us determine what “normal” is for
children in each grade. A raw score of 5 might be normal for 2
nd
graders; a 9 might be
“normal” for 3
rd
graders.
• When reporting, it is important to keep in mind the audience (e.g. parents) to determine how
to report the scores and what to say about them so that they are understandable.
Criterion-referenced
• Terms associated: Benchmarks and rubric
• These tests look at both process and product
• For example, these assessments may consider what children are doing when they write
answers they write, along with whether the answer is correct
• The benchmark establishes a criteria for success and a time at which it should be met
• Rubrics can rate how well children are progressing toward the criteria (e.g. beginning,
developing, proficient)
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Cloze Procedure
17
Preparation:
1. Select a passage of about 100 words.
2. Type it leaving the first and last sentences in tack.
3. Beginning with the second sentence, delete every seventh word. Place a line where each
word is deleted. All lines should be the same length.
4. Prepare one passage for you to use as a model and a different one for the child to use.
Administration:
1. Explain that you need help with your “homework.” Explain in your own words that you are
not testing the child but that you are getting practice in administering this tool.
2. Model this activity with a short practice passage.
3. Have the child read through the passage first, saying “blank” where the lines (deleted words
are).
4. Have the child go back and insert a word for each space. S/he should be encouraged o
guess. This is untimed, so there shouldn’t be any pressure to move quickly.
5. Acknowledge that the child did a great job and thank him/her for helping with your
“homework.”
Evaluation:
1. Only EXACT replacements for the deleted words are CORRECT. Therefore, do not
evaluate the child’s work in front of him/her.
2. Tally the number of EXACT replacements and determine a percentage of correct responses.
For example, if there are 18 deleted words and the child replaces 12 of them with the exact
word that was in the original text, the ration would be 12/18 or 66.6%.
3. Independent Level = 60% or higher (At this level, the child should be successful without
support.)
Instructional Level = between 40-59% (At this level, the child should be able to read
independently after you have provided prereading support.)
Frustrational Level = between 0 and 39% (This level may be too difficult for the child, even
with support.)
Example:
The Terrible Eek a Japanese tale retold by Patricia A. Campton
A long time ago, in a certain place in the mountains, it began to rain. The wind shook a small
house ________ a thatch roof.
Inside a boy _______ his father sat warming their hands _______ a small fire. Nearby, the
boy’s _______ prepared the evening meal.
The sounds _______ the wind and rain battering at _______ house frightened the boy.
“Father, are _______ afraid?” the boy asked. [Continue in this manner through a passage of about
100 words. Leave the last sentence intact.]
Answers: with, and, over, mother, of, the, you.
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Yopp-Singer Test of Phoneme Segmentation
18
Student’s name __________________________ Date _____________________
Score (number correct) ____________________
Directions: Today we’re going to play a word game. I’m going to say a word and I want you to
break the word apart. You are going to tell me each sound in the word in order. For example, if I
say “old,” you should /o/ - /l/ - /d/.” (Administrator: Be sure to say the sounds, not the letters, in
the world.)
Practice items: (Assist the child in segmenting these items as necessary/) ride, go, man
Test items: (Circle those items that the student correctly segments; incorrect responses may be
recorded on the blank line following the item.
SAMPLE WORDS:
1. dog _____________________
2. keep _____________________
3. fine ____________________
4. sat _____________________
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Concepts of Print Checklist (excerpt)
19
Directions: Have the student read through a familiar book. During the reading, record your
observations of the student’s behaviors.
Grade Teacher
Examiner
Assess
Prompt the Student
Pre-
Post-
Comments
Book Concepts
Cover of Book
Show me how you hold a
book.
Show me the front of the
book.
Show me the name of
the author/illustrator.
Show me the back of the
book.
Title
Show me the title.
Title Page
Show me the title page.
Text Concepts
Print tells a story
Where does the book tell
the story?
Concept of a word
Can you put your fingers
around a word?
Can you find two words
that are the same?
Where is the first word
on this page?
Where is the last word on
this page?
Concept of letter
Can you put your fingers
around a letter?
Can you tell me the
names of same letters on
this page?
+ = Understands concept (answers the question or performs the indicated behavior
without hesitation)
✓ = Needs review (answers the question or performs the indicated behavior with
hesitation or with additional prompting)
- = Does not understand concept (cannot answer the question or perform the indicated
behavior)
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Assessing for Different Purposes:
20
Determining a child’s reading level is one purpose for assessment, but checking in, gathering
anecdotal information, talking with children and observing their reading behaviors will represent the
bulk of assessments in the classroom. Informal observations are often called, “Kid Watching.”
What elements of reading should we assess?
• Emergent literacy (familiarity with conventions of print; phonological awareness; knowledge
of letter names and sounds; purpose of literacy in their lives)
• Word strategies (sight words, decoding and spelling behaviors). Ideally you want to know
how students are using the skills you’ve taught IN CONTEXT. For example, how do they
solve problems when determining how to read or write unfamiliar words?
• Fluency. (How smooth or choppy? Expression? Intonation?)
• Comprehension.
• Interest. Motivation. Attitudes toward reading.
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Comparison of Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced
Tests
Point of Comparison
Norm-Referenced
Criterion-Referenced
Purpose
Determines a student’s grade-
level achievement.
Determines extent to which
student objectives are being
met.
Testing procedures
Each student takes a complete
test.
Items may be randomly
assigned as purposes dictate.
Achievement Standard
Comparison with other
students of the same age.
Performance of the individual
in regard to the objective.
Reporting of results
Grade-level achievement
norms for individuals or
groups.
Percentage score on the
number of items correct for
specific objective
Implications for teaching
Teaching for the test
constrains classroom activity
and invalidates the test.
Teaching for the objectives is
desirable and expected if the
objectives have been carefully
formulated.
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Section 0009: Understand Multiple Approaches to
Reading Instruction
✓ Knowledge of the significant theories, approaches, practices and programs for developing
reading skills and reading comprehension
✓ Strategies for planning, organizing, managing, and differentiating reading instruction to
support the reading development of all students
✓ Adjustment of reading instruction based on ongoing assessment
✓ Instructional strategies for promoting development of particular reading skills (e.g., phonemic
awareness, phonics skills, word identification, automatic recognition of sight words,
vocabulary knowledge)
✓ The importance of close reading and rereading of well crafted, content-and idea-rich texts in
reading development; strategies for evaluating and sequencing texts for reading instruction
according to text complexity
✓ The importance of balancing students’ exposure to and reading of literary and informational
texts
✓ The uses of large-group, small-group and individualized reading instruction
✓ Strategies for selecting and using meaningful reading materials at appropriate levels of
difficulty
✓ Creation of an environment that promotes love of reading
✓ Strategies for promoting independent reading in the classroom and at home
✓ Uses of instructional technologies to promote reading development
✓ Awareness of strategies and resources for supporting individual students (e.g., English
Language Learners, struggling readers through highly proficient readers)
Official Massachusetts Tests for Educator Licensure (MTEL) test objectives and preparation materials appear on the
MTEL Website at www.mtel.nesinc.com. Copyright ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliate(s). All rights
reserved. Evaluation Systems, Pearson, P.O. Box 226, Amherst, MA 01004.
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Teaching Reading to English
Language Learners
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Reading Instruction and English Language Learners
Reading Rockets
What Does Research Tell Us About Teaching Reading to English Language Learners?
By: Suzanne Irujo (2007)
*Please find this article at: www.readingrockets.org/article/19757
English Sounds not in Other Languages
Below is an example of a sound used in English that are not part of other languages. These sounds
are difficult for new speakers of English.
Language
Sounds Not Part of the Language
Chinese
b, ch, d, dg, g, o, ash, s, th, th, v, z
French
ch, ee, j, ng, oo, th, th
Spanish
dg, j, sh, th, z
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Stages of Reading
Development
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Early Literacy Development
21
Stages of Early Literacy Development:
Emergent – Early – Early Fluent –Fluent
The terms “Beginning Reading and Writing” or “Early Literacy Development” actually include
several phases of learning through which children progress in different ways and tempos. It is an
exciting and complex process that usually occurs between the ages 5 through 8. As in most other
areas of development all children do not follow one clear sequential path in lock-step. Rather,
individual children may take a variety of routes to reading and writing mastery. Literacy learning is
circular or “recursive”; learners may move forward in some areas and seem to step back as they
consolidate understanding in others. Thus, reading and writing may not develop evenly. A child may
be fluent in one area and emergent in another. Ultimately however, whatever the timetable or path,
the goals are the same for all:
• To become fluent and efficient readers and writers who can make sense of and convey
meaning in written language;
• To become thinkers and communicators who are actively reviewing and analyzing
information;
• To enjoy reading and writing; and,
• To feel successful as users of literacy for a variety of purposes.
NOTE: Keep in mind that the grade levels associated with each phase describe below are only
approximate. In each grade there are likely to be children in all phases of literacy acquisition. Also,
remember that within each phase there may be a range of learners who are developing in different
ways.
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I. Emergent Readers and Writers (typically pre-kindergarten
through first grade).
22
• Understand that written language conveys messages
• Pretend read and write: they turn pages of books, invent the story using pictures and their
memory of a story
• Begin to match spoken words with print
• May know some letter names and some letter sound associations
• May recognize some words and letters in their environment or in texts; but not again in a
different context; they may still be unsure of the concept of “word” or “letter”
• Can write some letters, usually those in their own names
• In writing may reverse some letters, and may use mostly upper case letters
• May make scribbles or strings of random letters with no spaces; one letter may represent a
whole word
• May “read” or attribute meaning to his or her marks; may not be able to “re-read” these
marks at a later time.
Children in this phase benefit from:
• Seeing reading and writing modeled through listening to good stories and seeing others write
meaningful messages
• Supported practice while reading engaging, predictable books with pictures that clearly relate
to and illustrate the story line
• Encouragement to experiment with writing
• Experience with sorting words and pictures to build letter and sound recognition
• Experience with rhyming and other word play
• Activities that engage students in using oral and written
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II. Early Readers (typically first through second grade).
23
• Know that reading needs to make sense
• Are more attentive to print and know more print conventions
• Understand that books have exact and unchanging messages carried by print as well as
pictures
• Can identify most letters by name, and can use some letter/sound knowledge (i.e.: the sound
of the first letter) to help figure out words.
• Know the meaning of some punctuation (capitals and periods), but may not use consistently
in writing and reading
• Can recognize, by sight, a small but growing store of words in different contexts
• Use pictures, story patterns, context and memory of some words as well as some phonics to
make sense of print
Early Writers:
• Use spaces between words, but not consistently
• Include more sound/letter association in spelling, especially initial or final consonants; may
write some whole words or word parts (like “ing”) from memory
• Can usually re-read his or her own writing
• Have variable handwriting: may use more lower case letters, but still could be mixed with
caps, may reverse some letters (writing b instead of d)
Children in this phase benefit from:
• Continued exposure to shared and guided reading of pattern stories and other predictable
books, with clear print and pictures
• Modeling and explicit teaching of and practice with using three cuing systems and strategies
to figure out words and make sense of print
• Games, activates to consolidate voice/print match and build sight word recognition
• Games and activates to build phonemic awareness
• Encouragement to write using invented spelling
• Language experience activities
• Hearing, discussing, retelling a variety of stories read aloud
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III. Early Fluent/Fluent Readers (typically second through
third grade).
24
• Recognize many words in and out of context
• Can apply phonics and other word analysis skills to figure out and confirm new words
• Monitor their own reading for meaning and self correct as needed
• Read with increased fluency, accuracy, and expression
Early Fluent/Fluent Writers:
• Are more comfortable with drafting, revising and editing
• Show influence of the texts they have read
• Express their ideas more elaborately
• Use spelling that is closer to conventional spelling
• Increase their use of punctuation
Children in this phase benefit from:
• Continued opportunities to read and discuss a variety of increasingly challenging and
personally meaningful texts
• Continued practice reading for meaning using various strategies: integrating cueing systems,
self-monitoring and self-correcting
• Exposure to and practice with more aspects of word analysis
• Practice building accuracy, fluency, expression
• Practice reading silently
• Guidance and practice with specific comprehension strategies
• Encouragement to continue writing with increasing support for revision and editing
• Hearing and discussing a variety of literature read aloud
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Integration of Knowledge and
Understanding
(20% of the test)
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Section 0010: Prepare an organized, developed analysis
on a topic related to one or more of the following:
foundations of reading development; development of
reading comprehension; reading assessment and
instruction.
✓ The role of phonological and phonemic awareness in reading development
✓ Development of alphabetic knowledge
✓ Role of phonics in developing rapid, automatic word recognition
✓ Development of word analysis skills and strategies in addition to phonics, including
structural analysis
✓ The relationship between vocabulary development and reading comprehension
✓ Use of comprehension strategies to enhance comprehension of imaginative/literary texts
✓ Knowledge of organizational patterns in informational/expository texts
✓ Techniques for assessing particular reading skills
✓ Strategies for planning, organizing, managing and differentiating reading instruction to
support the reading development of all students
Official Massachusetts Tests for Educator Licensure (MTEL) test objectives and preparation materials appear on the MTEL Website at
www.mtel.nesinc.com. Copyright ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliate(s). All rights reserved. Evaluation Systems, Pearson, P.O.
Box 226, Amherst, MA 01004.
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Open Response Questions
and
MTEL Overview Charts
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Tips for Analyzing the Running Record and Comprehension
Discussion Components of the MTEL Test
Miscue Analysis/Analysis of Oral Reading:
1. Make sure you read the “background” information at the top of the page. It can be easy to miss.
It will likely tell you the grade level of the student and provide you with some context for
reviewing the running record.
2. As you read through the running record, note the type of miscues that the student makes. One
helpful way is to make a T chart with a comparison of the word from the text and the miscue.
In this way you can identify the patterns of miscues or trends. See example below:
Text
Miscue
rain
ran
pain
pan
team
tem
3. You will probably be asked to identify one strength and one weakness in the running record.
When you look for a strength/weakness, it is critical that you use several examples from the text
to support your conclusions.
4. The test will ask you to use your knowledge of word identification strategies to write your
response. There are four types of these word identification strategies you will keep in mind as
you assess strengths and weaknesses:
• Use of Phonics
• Analysis of Word Structure
• Use of Context Clues and
• Identification of Sight Words
Use of Phonics: Look for use of phonics in single syllable words and in single syllables.
In what ways does the child use/not use phonics knowledge (knowledge of letter-sound
correspondence) and phonics generalizations to decode words? Look for patterns of words that the
reader reads successfully or with which he struggles such as vowel digraphs, words ending in silent e,
consonant blends etc. A strong answer depends upon your use of correct terminology to support your
conclusions.
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Analysis of Word Structure (also known as Structural Analysis or Word Analysis): Look for
analysis of word structure with multi-syllable words.
Consider whether or not the reader has strategies for decoding longer, multi-syllable words. Does
the reader break these longer words into more manageable parts by looking for “chunks” or word
parts that they know? Does the reader divide these words into their syllables? Compound words
into the smaller words from which they’re composed? Accurately read words with inflections (ed,
ing, plural endings)? Does the reader use word analysis to divide words into meaning-bearing parts
such as prefixes, suffixes, and roots or bases?
The goal is strategy use! Does the reader attempt to read these longer words strategically?
Use of Context Clues: Does the reader use context clues to identify an unfamiliar word?
Here’s how you can tell that Use of Context Clues is a strength: The reader may SELF-CORRECT
© errors by noticing when a word doesn’t “fit” within the context of the text. Specifically, the
reader may notice that the word didn’t sound right grammatically (this means the reader is using
knowledge of syntax) or make sense (the reader is using knowledge of semantics). What “sent the
child back to self-correct” is part of the oral reading analysis and the teacher can make these
inferences based on the where in the text the child made the self-correction.
A reader may also have a strength in the use of context clues if they substitute words into the
passage that still sound right (use of syntax) and makes sense (use of semantics), even if the
substituted word is a deviation from the word in print.
On the other hand, a reader may have a weakness in the use of context clues if they routinely make
substitutions (miscues) that don’t make sense or sound right and fail to return to the error to self-
correct. They may use the first letter to guess, and then plug away without regard to meaning.
* NOTE: If the child’s strength is in the use of context clues, you must then ask yourself the
following question: “Why did the child need to use context clues with these words? With which
types of words did s/he struggle? Which types of words did s/he initially read incorrectly?” Once
you determine a pattern of miscues (usually in the area of phonics or word analysis), you will have
also identified your weakness!
Identification of Sight Words: Does the reader show automaticity in reading high frequency
words? High frequency words that are phonetically “regular” are words such as: am, at, mom, and big.
Irregular sight words are words such as because, were, what, said, and the. (See page 73 of the study
guide for more examples). These irregular words need to be memorized because they do not follow
phonics generalizations. If a child misreads a number of these common words, particularly those
with irregular spellings, they show a weakness in this area.
WHY IS WORD IDENTIFICATION SO IMPORTANT? In order for a child to read fluently
and with comprehension, they need to be “freed” from the burden of decoding unknown words. If
they struggle to identify words on the page, they cannot then simultaneously focus on the meaning
of the text. Therefore, strong readers need to read with automaticity. Automaticity is required for
fluent reading. Fluency is strongly related to comprehension.
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Answering the Open Response Question related to Comprehension:
1. Read all information carefully!
2. The question will likely read, “Using your knowledge of reading comprehension (e.g. literal comprehension,
inferential comprehension, engagement of schema, self- monitoring) write a response. . .
3. Be sure that you are familiar with the elements of reading comprehension listed above (and
discussed below) and be prepared to provide examples and evidence to support your answer.
Literal Comprehension: If the student can repeat back the plot (provide characters, setting, and
key events etc.) stated directly and explicitly in the text, they are using their literal comprehension skills.
Look for the reader’s ability to retell in a sequential fashion, highlighting key ideas and details as
explicitly stated. Notice if the reader’s retelling is complete/thorough and confirm that the details
from the retelling are accurate.
Inferential Comprehension: After considering literal comprehension skills, the next step is to
determine if the reader can use clues from the passage to infer what is happening (to “read between
the lines” or to look beneath the surface). Students who look for a deeper meaning may wonder
WHY something happened, or consider WHAT MIGHT happen, or HOW.
Engagement of Schema: Does the reader show evidence of activating background knowledge?
Does the reader use connections (text-to-self, text-to-text, and/or text-to-world) to better
understand what he/she is reading? For example, does the reader’s own personal experience allow
him/her to walk in the character’s shoes to empathize with the character? If so, the reader is
engaging with his/her schema (background knowledge) to better understand the text.
Self-Monitoring: Does the reader show evidence of metacognition? Does the reader “make the
invisible, visible” by articulating the strategies they are using to better understand the text? Does
s/he describe areas where comprehension broke down and explain how they applied a “fix-up
strategy” to make sense of the text? For example, does the reader say, “I was confused so I went
back to reread that part” or “I tried to visualize what that scene would look like” or “I predicted
what might happen…”?
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How to Form Your Open Response
Step 1:
Identify and name the strength and then, in the next paragraph, the weakness.
This means for the Running Record you will identify and name the Word
Identification strategy. Refer to the specific terms provided in the parenthesis of the
question, but also be more specific where possible:
Joe appears to have a weakness in the Use of Phonics. Specifically he has difficulty decoding
words with vowel diagraphs.
For the Comprehension Question you will identify and name the Comprehension
Strategy.
Joe appears to have a strength in
inferential comprehension.
Step 2:
Define the strength or weakness in your own words. Be very clear!
Step 3:
Provide evidence. Use at least 3 examples, possibly more.
Step 4:
Briefly wrap-up by explaining how a strength/weakness in the area you’ve identified
contributes to overall reading performance.
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Use the information below to complete the exercise that follows.
Jonathan, a third-grade student, reads aloud a passage from an unfamiliar story. As he reads, the
teacher notes his performance on a separate copy of the story. Printed below is an excerpt from
the teacher's record of Jonathan's oral reading performance.
Using your knowledge of word identification strategies (e.g., use of phonics, analysis of word
structure, use of context clues, identification of sight words), write a response in which you:
• identify one of Jonathan's strengths in using word identification strategies; and
• identify one of Jonathan's weaknesses in using word identification strategies.
Be sure to cite specific evidence from the information shown to support your response.
Official Massachusetts Tests for Educator Licensure (MTEL) test objectives and preparation materials appear on the MTEL Website at
www.mtel.nesinc.com. Copyright ©2013 Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliate(s). All rights reserved. Evaluation Systems, Pearson, P.O.
Box 226, Amherst, MA 01004.
Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
84
Sample Open Response Answer (Analysis of Oral Reading)
Jonathan appears to have a strength in the area of structural analysis. Structural analysis, also
known as analysis of word structure, is the ability to break down multisyllabic words into their
meaning-bearing parts. Jonathan is able to read these words strategically. For example, he read the
following words correctly by breaking down these words into syllables: summer (sum-mer),
mountain (moun-tain), nearly (near-ly). He was also able to read compound words (words such as
shoebox and newspaper) by breaking down these words into the two words from which they’re
composed (i.e. shoe-box and news-paper). Clearly it is one of Jonathan’s strengths that he can break
these unfamiliar words down in order to read them accurately. While he is not reading with
automaticity, as evidenced by the pauses before many multisyllabic words, he is able to apply these
strategies to help him.
Jonathan’s weakness appears to be in the area of sight word recognition. Sight words, also
known as high frequency words, are words that children need to know with automaticity. Many of
these words are also irregular and need to be memorized. For example, Jonathan read went for
what, will for would and through for though. It would benefit Jonathan to develop automaticity
with these sight words. With greater automaticity and accuracy, Jonathan will be able to focus on
comprehension.
*An alternative weakness related to Jonathan appears below. Both weaknesses are correct
but you should choose one to develop one fully.
One of Jonathan’s weaknesses appears to be in the use of context clues to self-correct.
Jonathan does not appear to notice when a substitution in the passage doesn’t make sense or sound
right. In other words, he does not appear to be using the semantic or syntactic cueing systems to
self-correct. One example of this weakness appears when he states, “WENT she really wanted. . .”
instead of “WHAT she really wanted. . .” The sentence doesn’t make sense or sound right with this
substitution. Another example is when Jonathan says, “It was not NEARLY ANY to buy the bike.”
The substitution of ANY instead of ENOUGH does not make sense in the passage. Jonathan
would benefit from the use of context clues. In particular, he should practice returning to the
beginning of a sentence or a phrase to reread if the word he has used does not fit. By using context
clues, he is more likely to self-correct or substitute a word into the passage that makes sense and
sounds right.
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Jennifer Arenson Yaeger Foundations of Reading Study Guide 2018
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Running Record Scenarios
Scenario #1: Identify the weakness:
Text
Miscue
Dream
Deam
Tried
Tied
Smell
Sell
Driver
Diver
Smart
Sart
Broil
Boil
Scenario #2: Identify the strength and weakness: © = means self-correct
Text
Miscue
Dream
Deam ©_
Tried
Tied ©
Smell
Sell ©
Driver
Diver ©
Smart
Sart ©
Broil
Boil ©
Scenario #3: Identify the weakness:
Text
Miscue
Situation
s-i-t-u-a-t-i-u-n
Appreciation
a-p-p-re-k-i-a-t-u-n
Perfecting
Pr-f-e-c-t-i-n-g
Unopposed
u-n-opp-os-ed
Scenario #4: Identify the strength and weakness:
Text
Miscue
Situation
Sit-u-a-tion
Appreciation
ap-pre-ci-a-tion
Perfecting
Per-fect-ing
Unopposed
Un-op-posed
Inefficient
In-ef-fi-cient
Scenario #5: Identify the strength and weakness:
Text
Miscue
because
-(omit) ©
there
this
friend
fend
could
-(omit) ©
through
-(omit) ©
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Scenario 6: Identify the weakness:
Text
Miscue
Dropping
Drop
Waking
Wake
Sleeping
Sleep
Walked
Walk
Changed
Change
Scenario 7: Identify the strength:
Text
Miscue
Rainbow
Rain-bow
Cargo
Car-go
Particular
Par-ti-cu-lar
Hotdog
Hot-dog
Mastermind
Master-mind
Determine
De-ter-mine
Scenario 8: Identify the strength and weakness:
Text
Miscue
Treat
tret
Because
(correct)
Pray
Pra
Strain
Stran
Through
(correct)
Street
Stret
Been
(correct)
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Answers:
Each of these responses would need to be fully developed on the MTEL test,
but the answers to each question are listed below.
Scenario 1:
• Weakness is in Use of Phonics, specifically decoding words with consonant blends.
• NO STRENGTH in this scenario.
Scenario 2:
• Strength is in Use of Context Clues, as evidenced by the many self-corrections. The
student was likely self-correcting by using context clues to ask themselves: “What would
make sense?” “What would sound right?” Keep in mind, however, that you really would only know if
the strength was in Use of Context Clues by analyzing the substitutions in the context of the passage.
• The weakness was in the Use of Phonics, specifically decoding words with consonant
blends.
Scenario 3:
• Weakness is in the Use of Word Analysis. Student does not appear to have a strategy to
break-apart multisyllabic words.
• Strength would appear as the words do in Scenario 4 (words broken apart strategically)
Scenario 4:
• Strength is in Use of Word Analysis.
Scenario 5:
• Strength is in Use of Context Clues, as evidenced by the many self-corrections. The
student most likely self-corrected by using context clues to ask themselves: “What would
make sense?” “What would sound right?” Keep in mind, however, that you really would only know if
the strength was in Use of Context Clues by analyzing the substitutions in the context of the passage.
• Weakness is in Sight Word Recognition as evidenced by the omissions of these words and
in the errors with reading sight words.
Scenario 6:
• WEAKNESS: Word Analysis, leaving off the inflections (inflectional endings)
Scenario 7
• STRENGTH: Word Analysis (chunking, breaking words into syllables and compound words
into the two words from which they are composed)
Scenario 8
• STRENGTH: Identification of sight words;
• WEAKNESS: Use of phonics, specifically vowel digraphs (even though the reader clearly
knows how to decode consonant blends); Could also be context clues (student should have
shown an attempt to self-correct)
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Reading Comprehension Open Response Practice
Ella, a third-grade student, has been silently reading a short story entitled, “Sisters” by Warren Hynes
25
. The passage
describes a conversation between the narrator and her mother as they prepare to head out to the beach.
I knocked on her door again, my pail and shovel in hand.
“Maya, do you want to walk to the beach and dig for sea glass?”
“No,” she said.
I tried again. “Maya, remember how much fun it was last year?”
“Leave me alone,” she said from behind the door.
I didn’t understand. “But why?” I asked. “Don’t you want to do it together?”
No answer.
I trudged into the kitchen, where Mom was making sandwiches for the beach.
“Mom,” I said, “Maya won’t go with me to the beach. I don’t think she loves me anymore.”
Mom saw the tears in my eyes, and she hugged me tightly. “Oh, sweetie,” Mom said. “Maya loves you a lot.
She’s just getting to the point where listening to her music and writing in her journal means a lot to her,
too.”
I shook my head. “But why can’t she just explain that, then?” I asked. “Why does she have to be so mean
about it?”
Mom nodded. “I’ll talk to her about it later,” she said. “But just remember, this is a phase she’s going
through. It’s just a mood she’s in today, and she needs her alone time. Maya will always be there for you,
don’t worry.”
I wiped the salty tears from my eyes, blew my nose, and let Mom put sunscreen on me. When the lunches
were ready, the two of us walked to the beach. Maya would join us later, Mom said, when she was ready.
I just don’t think I understand 12-year-olds. I never will.
Used with Permission of Warren Hynes
After Ella finishes reading the passage, the teacher prompts her to retell this part of the story.
Shown below is Ella’s oral retelling of the passage (*See retelling scenarios below—there will be only
one on the actual test).
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Using your knowledge of reading comprehension (e.g. literal comprehension, inferential comprehension, engagement of
schema, self-monitoring), write a response in which you:
• Identify and discuss one of Ella’s strengths related to reading comprehension; and
• Identify and discuss one of Ella’s weaknesses related to reading comprehension.
Retelling Scenario #1:
The story is about a girl who wants to go to the beach with Maya--I think that’s her sister--to look for sea glass.
Maya doesn’t want to go but she won’t explain why. Then the girl talks to her mom about it. It says that the girl
doesn’t feel loved. The mom says that Maya does still love her and that it’s just a phase, but I don’t know what
that means. In the end the girls says she doesn’t understand 12 year-olds.
Retelling Scenario #2:
The story is about a girl who wants to go swimming at the beach with her sister, Maya. You can tell that the girl
really wants her sister to want to hang out and play with her, just like they used to, but now Maya is older and
doesn’t want to. I think maybe the older sister is not interested in playing anymore like when she was a kid. This
is definitely hurting the girl’s feelings and she has no one to talk to about it. She really doesn’t understand why
things are different.
Retelling Scenario #3:
The story is about a girl who wants to go swimming at the beach with her sister, Maya. This story actually
reminded me a lot of my relationship with my brother, Travis. It’s like the older sister sees her as a pest and that’s
just how Travis makes me feel. He doesn’t really want to do anything like we used to. This story made me feel
badly for this girl. I hope it is just a phase that Maya is going through. I hope that’s the same for my brother.
Retelling Scenario #4:
The story is about a girl who is trying to get her sister to go to the beach with her. At first I thought the girl’s name
was Maya, but then I went back and reread it and realized that they don’t tell you the girl’s name. They just tell
you that the sister is Maya. Anyway, there was a lot of dialogue so you really have to pay attention to who is
talking. So the girl starts off talking to the mom about her sister and complaining because Maya won’t go to the
beach. Then she goes and tries to talk to her sister, but her sister won’t change her mind. Finally, the girl just
decides to go to the beach by herself. I think this story is really about one sister who is getting older and growing up
and the other sister who wants her to stay young and play like they used to. It’s really hard when people change.
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Retelling Scenario #5:
The story is about a girl who wants to go to the beach with her sister. At first the sister tries to get the older sister
to go, but the older sister just says, “No.” Then the younger sister talks to her mom who is making her lunch so
that they can go to the beach. You can tell the mom is trying to comfort her, and she explains that the older sister is
writing in her journal, but it just doesn’t explain why the sister can’t go to the beach and work on her journal later.
POSSIBLE RESPONSES: What matters here is not that you agree with every possible strength or
weakness (the are other possible interpretations), but that you make your own case, supported by
evidence and demonstrating a clear understanding of reading comprehension.
Retelling Scenario 1:
Strength: Literal Comprehension
Weakness: Inferential or Engagement of Schema
Retelling Scenario 2:
Strength: Inferential Comprehension
Weakness: Literal Comprehension
Retelling Scenario 3:
Strength: Engagement of Schema or Inferential Comprehension
Weakness: Literal Comprehension
Retelling Scenario 4:
Strength: Self-Monitoring or Inferential Comprehension
Weakness: Literal Comprehension
Retelling Scenario 5:
Strength: Literal Comprehension
Weakness: Inferential Comprehension or Engagement of Schema
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Glossary
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Accuracy (part of fluency): Reading words in text with no errors.
Academically Engaged: Students are academically engaged when they are participating in
activities/instruction in a meaningful way and understanding the tasks in which they are
involved.
Affix: A general term that refers to prefixes and suffixes.
After-Reading Comprehension Strategies: Strategies that require the reader to actively
transform key information in text that has been read (e.g., summarizing, retelling).
Aligned Materials: Student materials (texts, activities, manipulatives, homework, etc.) that
reinforce classroom instruction of specific skills in reading.
Alphabetic Principle: The concept that letters and letter combinations represent individual
phonemes in written words.
Ample Opportunities for Student Practice: Students are asked to apply what they have been
taught in order to accomplish specific reading tasks. Practice should follow in a logical
relationship with what has just been taught. Once skills are internalized, students are
provided with more opportunities to independently implement previously learned
information.
Analogy: Comparing two sets of words to show some common similarity between the sets.
When done as a vocabulary exercise this requires producing one of the words (e.g., cat is
to kitten as dog is to _____?).
Antonym: A word opposite in meaning to another word.
Automaticity: Reading without conscious effort or attention to decoding.
Background Knowledge: The knowledge and understandings of the world that students have
acquired through their everyday experiences – riding in cars or buses, playing and talking
with other children and adults, that help them to make sense of the texts they read.
Base Word: A unit of meaning that can stand alone as a whole word (e.g., friend, pig). Also
called a free morpheme.
Before-Reading Comprehension Strategies: Strategies employed to emphasize the importance
of preparing students to read text (e.g., activate prior knowledge, set a purpose for
reading).
Blending: The task of combining sounds rapidly, to accurately represent the word.
Bloom’s Taxonomy: A system for categorizing levels of abstraction of questions that commonly
occur in educational settings. Includes the following competencies: Knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
Choral Reading/Chanting: Two or more individuals reading aloud from the same text-this can
help students to develop oral reading fluency.
Chunked Text: Continuous text that has been separated into meaningful phrases often with the
use of single and double slash marks (/ and //). The intent of using chunked text or
chunking text is to give children an opportunity to practice reading phrases fluently.
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Chunking: A decoding strategy for breaking words into manageable parts (e.g., yes/ter/day).
Chunking also refers to the process of dividing a sentence into smaller phrases where
pauses might occur naturally (e.g., When the sun appeared after the storm, / the newly
fallen snow. shimmered like diamonds).
Comprehension: Understanding what one is reading, the ultimate goal of all reading activity.
Comprehension Questions: Questions that address the meaning of text, ranging from literal to
inferential to analytical.
Concepts About Print/Conventions of Print: The understanding an individual has about the
rules or accepted practices that govern the use of print and the use of written language.
For example concepts about print include: reading left to right, top to bottom, words are
made of letters, use of spaces between words, use of upper case letters, spelling patterns,
punctuation, etc.
Concept Definition Mapping: Provides a visual framework for organizing conceptual
information in the process of defining a word or concept. The framework contains the
category, properties, and example of the word or concept.
Connected Text: Words that are linked (as opposed to words in a list) as in sentences, phrases,
and paragraphs.
Consonant Blend: Two or more consecutive consonants which retain their individual sounds
(e.g., bl in block; str in string).
Consonant Digraph: Two consecutive consonants that represent one phoneme, or sound (e.g.,
ch, sh).
Context/Context Cues: Information from the surrounding text that helps identify or gives
meaning to a specific word or phrase i.e. “yesterday I read the book”. The words
surrounding “read” help us know how to pronounce it.
Context Clue: Using words or sentences around an unfamiliar word to help clarify its meaning.
Conventional Spelling: Spelling that is in the standard or correct form for written documents.
Cueing System: Any of the various sources of information that may aid identification of a word
such as: graphophonics, semantic and syntactic information.
Decodable Text: Text in which a high proportion of words (80%-90%) comprise sound-symbol
relationships that have already been taught. It is used for the purpose of providing
practice with specific decoding skills and is a bridge between learning phonics and the
application of phonics in independent reading.
Decodable Words: Words containing phonic elements that were previously taught.
Decoding: The ability to translate a word from print to speech, usually by employing knowledge
of sound-symbol correspondences; also the act of deciphering a new word by sounding it
out.
Derivational Affix: A prefix or suffix added to a root or stem to form another word (e.g., -ness
in likeness, un- in unhappy).
Diagnostic: Diagnostic tests can be used to measure a variety of reading, language, or cognitive
skills. Although they can be given as soon as a screening test indicates a child is behind
in reading growth, they will usually be given only if a child fails to make adequate
progress after being given extra help in learning to read. They are designed to provide a
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more precise and detailed picture of the full range of a child’s knowledge and skill so that
instruction can be more precisely planned.
Differentiated Instruction: Matching instruction to meet the different needs of learners in a
given classroom.
Digraphs: A group of two consecutive letters whose phonetic value is a single sound (e.g., ea in
bread; ch in chart; ng in sing).
Diphthong: A vowel produced by the tongue shifting position during articulation; a vowel that
feels as if it has two parts, especially the vowels spelled ow, oy, ou, and oi.
Direct Instruction: The teacher defines and teaches a concept, guides students through its
application, and arranges for extended guided practice until mastery is achieved.
Discourse: How we combine sentences to communicate ideas.
During-Reading Comprehension Strategies: Strategies that help students engage the meanings
of a text (e.g., asking questions at critical junctures; modeling the thought process used to
make inferences; constructing mental imagery).
Echo Reading: Reading of a text where an adult or experienced reader reads a line of text, and
the student repeats the line. A good technique for Emergent and Early Readers to build
fluency and expression.
Elkonin Boxes: A framework used during phonemic awareness instruction. Elkonin Boxes are
sometimes referred to as Sound Boxes. When working with words, the teacher can draw
one box per sound for a target word. Students push a marker into one box as the segment
each sound in the word.
Emergent Reader: a reader who is developing an association of print with meaning – the early
stages of learning to read.
Empirical Research: Refers to scientifically based research that applies rigorous, systematic,
and objective procedures to obtain valid knowledge. This includes research that: employs
systematic, empirical methods that draw on observation or experiment; has been accepted
by a peer-reviewed journal or approved by a panel of independent experts through a
comparably rigorous, objective and scientific review; involves rigorous data analyses that
are adequate to test the stated hypotheses and justify the general conclusions drawn;
relies on measures or observational methods that provide valid data across evaluators and
observers and across multiple measurements and observations; and can be generalized.
Etymology: The origin and history of a word.
Explicit Teaching:
1. Teacher Models and Explains
2. Teacher provides Guided Practice
• Students practice what the teacher modeled and the teacher provides prompts and
feedback
3. Teacher provides Supported Application
• Students apply the skill as the teacher scaffolds instruction
4. Independent Practice
Expository Text: Text that reports factual information (also referred to as informational text)
and the relationships among ideas. Expository text tends to be more difficult for students
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than narrative text because of the density of long, difficult, and unknown words or word
parts.
Five Components of Reading: Phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and
comprehension.
Flexible Grouping: Grouping students according to shared instructional needs and abilities and
regrouping as their instructional needs change. Group size and allocated instructional
time may vary among groups.
Floss Rule: Words of one syllable, ending in f, l, or s – after one vowel, usually ending in ff, ll,
or ss (sounds /f/, /l/, /s/).
Fluency Probe: An assessment for measuring fluency, usually a timed oral reading passage at
the student’s instructional reading level.
Fluency: Ability to read text quickly, accurately, and with proper expression. Fluency provides a
bridge between word recognition and comprehension.
Frayer Model: An adaptation of the concept map. The framework of the Frayer Model includes:
the concept word, the definition, characteristics of the concept word, examples of the
concept word, and non-examples of the concept word. It is important to include both
examples and non-examples, so students are able to identify what the concept word is and
what the concept word is not.
Frustrational Reading Level: The level at which a reader reads at less than a 90% accuracy
(i.e., one or more errors per 10 words read). Frustration level text is difficult text for the
reader.
Grammar Conventions: the rules, or accepted practices, that govern the use of grammar in
written or spoken language.
Grapheme: A letter or letter combination that spells a phoneme; can be one, two, three, or four
letters in English (e.g., e, ei, igh, eigh).
Graphic Organizers: A visual framework or structure for capturing the main points of what is
being read, which may include concepts, ideas, events, vocabulary, or generalizations.
Graphic organizers allow ideas in text and thinking processes to become external by
showing the interrelatedness of ideas, thus facilitating understanding for the reader. The
structure of a graphic organizer is determined by the structure of the kind of text being
read.
Graphophonics (Phonics): referring to the relationship between the letters and the letter sounds
of a language
Graphophonemic Knowledge: Knowledge of the relationships between letters and phonemes.
Guided Practice: Students practice what the teacher modeled and the teacher provides prompts
and feedback.
Guided or Supported Reading: a method by which an experienced reader provides structure
and purpose, and models strategies in order to move beginning readers towards
independence.
High Frequency Words: a small group of words (300-500) that account for a large percentage
of the words in print and can be regular or irregular words. Often, they are referred to as
“sight words” since automatic recognition of these words is required for fluent reading.
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Homograph: Words that are spelled the same but have different origins and meanings. They
may or may not be pronounced the same (e.g. can as in a metal container/can as in able
to).
Immediate Intensive Intervention: Instruction that may include more time, more opportunities
for student practice, more teacher feedback, smaller group size, and different materials. It
is implemented as soon as assessment indicates that students are not making adequate
progress in reading.
Implicit Instruction: The opposite of explicit instruction. Students discover skills and concepts
instead of being explicitly taught. For example, the teacher writes a list of words on the
board that begin with the letter “m” (mud, milk, meal, and mattress) and asks the students
how the words are similar. The teacher elicits from the students that the letter m stands
for the sound you hear at the beginning of the words.
Independent Reading Level: The level at which a reader can read text with 95% accuracy (i.e.,
no more than one error per 20 words read). Independent reading level is relatively easy
text for the reader.
Independent-Instructional Reading Level Range: The reading range that spans instructional
and independent reading levels or level of text that a student can read with 90% to 95%
or above accuracy.
Inference: Drawing meaning from a combination of clues in the text without explicit reference
to the text. “The sky was dark and cloudy so I took my umbrella.” We can infer that it
might rain even though the text does not say that.
Inflectional Suffix: In English, a suffix that expresses plurality or possession when added to a
noun, tense when added to a verb, and comparison when added to an adjective and some
adverbs. A major difference between inflectional and derivational morphemes is that
inflections added to verbs, nouns, or adjectives do not change the grammatical role or
part of speech of the base words (-s, -es, -ing, -ed).
Informal Assessment: Does not follow prescribed rules for administration and scoring and has
not undergone technical scrutiny for reliability and validity. Teacher-made tests, end-of-
unit tests and running records are all examples of informal assessment.
Informational Test: Non-fiction books, also referred to as expository text, that contain facts and
information.
Intervention: Highly skilled teachers in a small pupil-teacher ration classroom provide explicit
and systematic instruction that is tailored to meet the identified needs of struggling
readers. Teaches will utilize assessment to guide accelerated instruction, use teacher
modeling and scaffolding with gradual release of responsibility to students, and provide
extensive practice opportunities.
Intervention Program: Programs that provide instruction intended for flexible use as part of
differentiated instruction and/or more intensive intervention to meet student learning
needs in one or more of the specific areas of reading (phonological awareness, phonics,
fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension). These programs are used to provide targeted,
intensive intervention for small groups of struggling readers.
Invented Spelling: An attempt by beginning writers to spell a word when the standard spelling
is unknown, using whatever knowledge of sounds or visual patterns the writer has.
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Inversions: Reversal or “flipping” of letters either horizontally or vertically, i.e.: p-d, or b-d, m-
w, u-n. Not unusual for Emergent writers or readers.
KWL Chart (Know, Want to know, Learned): A pre-reading or during reading activity to
support understanding in which adult and child develop a chart organized in three
columns: 1) things the child already Knows about a specific topic, 2) what the child
Wants to know about the same topic, and 3) what the child Learns about the topic after
reading about it.
Language Experience Approach: a method of teaching reading by using the reader’s own
dictated language.
Language Structure: The organization of words (both spoken and written) into meaningful
segments (phrases or sentences) using conventions of grammar and syntax.
Letter Combinations: Also referred to as digraphs, a group of consecutive letters that represents
a particular sound(s) in the majority of words in which it appears (e.g., ai in maid; ch in
chair; ar in car; kn in know; ng in ring).
Letter Recognition: The identification of individual letters by name and/or sound in a variety of
contexts.
Letter-Sound Correspondence: Making a connection between individual letters and the sounds
they represent (graphophonics).
Linguistic Approach: A reading based on highly regular spelling patterns. Such as: Nat the cat
sat on the mat.
Literal Comprehension: Understanding of the basic facts that the student has read.
Main Idea: The central thought or message of a reading passage.
Miscue: Any substitution of a word in a text that a reader makes.
Miscue Analysis: An examination of reading errors or substitutions (miscues) as the basis for
determining the strengths and weaknesses of students’ reading skills.
Modeled Reading: An experienced reader’s oral reading of a text to aid students in learning
strategies, understanding intonation and expression, and the use of punctuation, among
other aspects of reading.
Metacognition: An awareness of one’s own thinking processes and how they work. The process
of consciously thinking about one’s learning or reading while actually being engaged in
learning or reading. Metacognitive strategies can be taught to students; good readers use
metacognitive strategies to think about and have control over their reading.
Modeling: Teacher overtly demonstrates a strategy, skill, or concept that students will be
learning.
Morpheme: The smallest meaningful unit of language.
Morphemic Analysis: An analysis of words formed by adding prefixes, suffixes or other
meaningful word units to a base word.
Morphology: The system of meaningful parts from which words may be created.
Multisyllabic Words: Words with more than one syllable. A systematic introduction of prefixes,
suffixes, and multisyllabic words should occur throughout a reading program. The
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average number of syllables in the words students read should increase steadily
throughout the grades.
Narrative Text: Text that tells a story about fictional or real events.
Objectives: Measurable statements detailing the desired accomplishments of a program.
Oddities: Vowels that are pronounced differently from the expected pronunciation (e.g., the “o”
in old is pronounced /ō/ instead of the expected /o/).
Onset and Rime: In a syllable, the onset is the initial consonant or consonants, and the rime is
the vowel and any consonants that follow it (e.g., the word sat, the onset is s and the rime
is at. In the word flip, the onset is fl and the rime is ip).
Orthographic Units: The representation of the sounds of a language by written or printed
symbols.
Orthography: A writing system for representing language.
Pacing: the pace of a lesson should move briskly, but not so fast as to rush students beyond their
ability to answer correctly. The purposes for a fast pace are to help students pay close
attention to the material being presented, and provided students more practice time which
increases the opportunity for greater student achievement, keeps students actively
engaged, and reduces behavior management problems by keeping students on-task.
Partner/Peer Reading: Reading aloud taking turns with a partner who provides word
identification help and feedback.
Pattern Story or Cumulative Story: A story that has many elements or language patterns
repeated until the climax; a predictable text.
Phoneme: The smallest unit of sound within our language system. A phoneme combines with
other phonemes to make words.
Phoneme Isolation: Recognizing individual sounds in a word (e.g., /p/ is the first sound in pan).
Phoneme Manipulation: Adding, deleting, and substituting sounds in words (e.g., add /b/ to out
to make boat; delete /p/ in pan to make at; substitute /o/ for /a/ in a pat to make pot).
Phonemic Awareness: The ability to notice, think about, or manipulate the individual phonemes
(sounds) in words. It is the ability to understand that sounds in spoken language work
together to make words. This term is used to refer to the highest level of phonological
awareness: awareness of individual phonemes in words.
Phonics: The study of the relationships between letters and the sounds they represent; also used
to describe reading instruction that teaches sound-symbol correspondences.
Phonics Approach: Teaching reading and spelling in a way that stresses the connection between
letters and the sounds they represent, teaches the dissection of words into parts and then
blending the sounds together again. Phonics can be taught directly or can be incorporated
in ongoing reading and writing.
Phonogram: A succession of letters that represent the same phonological unit in different words,
such as igh in flight, might, tight, sigh, and high.
Phonological Awareness: One’s sensitivity to, or explicit awareness of, the phonological
structure of words in one’s language. This is an “umbrella” term that is used to refer to a
student’s sensitivity to any aspect of phonological structure in language. It encompasses
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awareness of individual words in sentences syllables, and onset-rime segments, as well as
awareness of individual phonemes.
Phonology: The speech-sound system.
Picture Cues: Use of images that accompany and reflect the content of a text to help readers
figure out words and understand the meaning of text.
Picture Walk: A pre-reading strategy: an examination of the text looking at pictures to gain an
understanding of the story and to illicit story related language in advance.
Pragmatics: A branch of linguistics concerned with the use of language in social contexts and
the ways in which people produce and comprehend meanings through language.
You have invited your friend over for dinner. Your child sees your friend reach for some
cookies and says, “Better not take those, or you’ll get even bigger.” You’re embarrassed
that your child could speak so rudely. However, you should consider that your child may
not know how to use language appropriately in social situations and did not mean harm
by the comment.
An individual may say words clearly and use long, complex sentences with correct
grammar, but still have a communication problem – if he or she has not mastered the
rules for social language known as pragmatics.
Prefix: A morpheme that precedes a root and that contributes to or modifies the meaning of a
word as re-in reprint.
Pre-reading Strategies: Activities that take place just before reading, like reviewing a book
cover or looking at the pictures, predicting, and formulating questions; these strategies
provide students with valuable information about the text and prepare them for reading.
Print Conventions/Conventions of Print: The understanding an individual has about the rules
or accepted practices that govern the use of print in the use of written language: for
example concepts about print include: reading left to right, top to bottom, words are made
of letters, use of spaces between words, use of upper case letters, spelling patterns,
punctuation, etc.
Prior Knowledge: Refers to schema, the knowledge and experience that readers bring to the
text.
Progress Monitoring: Tests that keep the teacher informed about the child’s progress in
learning to read during the school year. They are a quick sample of critical reading skills
that will tell the teacher if the child is making adequate progress toward grade level
reading ability at the end of the year.
Prosody: Reading with expression, proper intonation, and phrasing. This helps readers to sound
as if they are speaking the part they are reading. It is also this element of fluency that sets
it apart from automaticity.
Rate: the speed at which a person reads.
Readability Level: refers to independent, instructional, and frustrational levels of text reading.
Reading Centers: Special places organized in the classroom for students to work in small
groups or pairs, either cooperatively or individually. Students work in centers while the
teacher is conducting small group reading instruction. Each center contains meaningful,
purposeful activities that are an extension and reinforcement of what has already been
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taught by the teacher in reading groups or in a large group. Reading centers offer students
the opportunity to stay academically engaged as they apply the skills they have been
learning. They are an excellent way for teachers to determine whether or not students
know what they have been taught. It is important to develop a system and organize your
classroom in such a way that you can provide feedback to students in a timely manner.
Waiting until the end of the week to look at what students have worked on all week is not
a productive use of instructional time, as students may have been practicing errors all
week.
Examples of Reading Centers: Students practice phonics skills at the phonics center, sort word
cards at the vocabulary center, and at the reading center, they read books, listen to taped
books, record the reading of a book, and read in pairs. The reading center would contain a
variety of books at various reading levels to meet the needs of all students. Other centers
may consist of writing and spelling activities, pocket charts, white boards, magnetic
letters to practice word building, sentence strips and word cards to create stories,
sequencing activities with pictures, story boards, or sentence strips to retell a story that
has been read. Some centers may be permanent; others will change according to the
skills, books, and activities being currently addressed. It is recommended that teachers
not bring in material from other content areas unless the activity from science or math,
for example, specifically focuses on a skill that is being addressed in reading instruction.
Reading centers require careful planning.
Reading Fluency Prorating Formula: when students are asked to read connected text for more
than one minute or less than one minute, their performance must be prorated to give a
fluency rate per minute. The prorating formula for this is the following:
words read correctly x 60 / by the number of seconds = Reading Fluency Score
Repeated Reading: Rereading of text until the reader is able to read at a predetermined rate to
produce fluency.
Retelling: Recalling the content of what was read or heard.
Reversals: The result of reversing the order of letters in a word (tap/pat), or confusing similar
letters such as d-b, or writing letters backwards. Not uncommon with Emergent readers
and writers.
Rhyming: Words that have the same ending sound.
Root: A bound morpheme, usually of Latin origin, that cannot stand alone but is used to form a
family of words with related meanings.
Scaffolded Instruction: The process of modeling and encouraging strategic, successful reading
by providing structure, organization, questioning, clarification, summarizing, or trying
information to what is known or what will be found out. Students are given all the
support they need to arrive at the correct answer. For example, after an error occurs, the
support or assistance a teacher offers may include cues, giving reminders or
encouragement, breaking the problem down into steps, providing an example, or anything
else so that students can arrive at the correct answer instead of the teacher giving the
answer.
Schema: Refers to prior knowledge, the knowledge and experience that readers bring to the
text.
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Schwa: The vowel sound sometimes heard in an unstressed syllable and is most often sounded
as ‘uh’ or as the short ‘u’ sound as in ‘cup.’
Scientifically Based Reading Research (SBRR): Refers to empirical research that applies
rigorous, systematic, and objective procedures to obtain valid knowledge. This includes
research that: employs systematic, empirical methods that draw on observation or
experiment; has been accepted by a peer-reviewed journal or approved by a panel of
independent experts through a comparably rigorous, objective and scientific review;
involves rigorous data analyses that are adequate to text the stated hypotheses and justify
the general conclusions drawn; relies on measurements or observational methods that
provide valid data across evaluators and observers and across multiple measurements and
observations; and can be generalized.
Scope and Sequence: A “roadmap” or “blueprint” for teachers that provides an overall picture
of an instructional program.
Screening: Tests that provide the teacher a beginning assessment of the student’s preparation for
grade level reading instruction. They are a “first alert” that a child will need extra help to
make adequate progress in reading during the year.
Segmenting: Separating the individual phonemes, or sounds, of a word into discrete units.
Self Monitoring: Paying attention to one’s own reading process while reading, and taking steps
to reread or make corrections as needed to make sense of the text.
Semantics: The study of the meaning in language; the analysis of the meanings of words,
phrases, sentences.
Semantic Feature Analysis: Uses a grid to help explore how a set of things are related to one
another. By analyzing the grid one can see connections, make predications, and master
important concepts.
Semantic Maps: Portray the schematic relations that compose a concept; a strategy for
graphically representing concepts.
Shared Reading: When children are involved in reading a text with an adult in such a way that
the adult models strategies and concepts such as predicting and noticing letter patterns.
Helpful with very early readers in developing concepts about print such as “word” and
directionality.
Sight Words: Words that are recognized immediately. Sometimes sight words are thought to be
irregular, or high frequency (e.g., the Dolch and Fry lists). However, any word that is
recognized automatically is a sight word. These words may be phonetically regular or
irregular.
Sound(ing) Out: Using phonics to figure out words.
Sound to Symbol: Phonics instruction that matches phoneme to grapheme.
Spelling Patterns: Refers to digraphs, vowel pairs, word families, and vowel variant spellings.
Story Elements: Characters, problem, solutions, themes, settings, and plot.
Story Grammar: The general structure of stories that includes story elements.
Story Maps: A strategy used to unlock the plot and important elements of a story. These
elements can be represented visually through various graphic organizations showing the
beginning, middle, and end of a story. Answering the questions of who, where, when,
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what, and how or why, and listing the main events is also part of story mapping. These
elements are also referred to as story grammar.
Story/Text Structure: A set of conventions that govern different kinds of texts such as
characters, plot, settings, or in an informational text, comparison and contrast.
Strategic Learners: Active learners. While reading they make predictions, organize
information, and interact with the text. They think about what they are reading in terms of
what they already know. They monitor their comprehension by employing strategies that
facilitate their understanding.
Strategy: A means to enhance understanding of text.
Structural Analysis: A procedure for teaching students to read words formed with prefixes,
suffixes, or other meaningful word parts.
Student Friendly Explanation: An explanation of the word’s meaning rather than a definition.
1. Characterizes the word and how it is typically used.
2. Explains the meaning in everyday language.
Suffix: An affix attached to the end of a base, root, or stem that changes the meaning or
grammatical function of the word, as –en in oxen.
Summarizing: Reducing large selections of text to their bare essentials: the gist, the key ideas,
the main points that are worth noting and remembering.
Syllable: A segment of a word that contains one vowel sound. The vowel may or may not be
preceded and/or followed by a consonant.
Syllable Types: There are six syllable types:
1. Closed: cat, cobweb
2. Open: he, silo
3. Vowel-consonant-e (VCE): like, milestone
4. Consonant-l-e: candle, jungle (second syllable)
5. R-controlled: star, corner
6. Vowel pairs: count, rainbow
Symbol to Sound: Matching grapheme to phoneme.
Synonym: Words hat have similar meanings.
Syntax: The pattern or structure of word order in sentences, clauses and phrases; the
grammatical rules that govern language. Sentences have to follow certain structural rules
in order to make sense. You can’t just throw any words together to make a sentence!
Order words make sense need to…this doesn’t make sense!
Words need order to make sense…Ahh! Much better!
So what is the structure of a sentence? How do we know what is supposed to go where?
The answer lies in syntax.
Systematic Instruction: A carefully planned sequence for instruction, similar to a builder’s
blueprint for a house. A blueprint is carefully thought out and designed before building
materials are gathered and construction begins. The plan for instruction that is systematic
is carefully thought out, strategic, and designed before activities and lessons are planned.
Instruction is clearly linked within, as well as across the five components (phonemic
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awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension). For systematic instruction,
lessons build on previously taught information, from simple to complex.
Systematic Phonics Instruction: Systematic phonics programs teach children an extensive, pre-
specified set of letter-sound correspondences or phonograms.
Target Words: Words that are specifically addressed, analyzed, and/or studied in curriculum
lessons, exercises, and independent activities.
The Writing Process: A view of teaching writing as an ongoing process involving several steps
such as: planning, drafting, revising, editing, publishing.
Timed Reading: Student reads appropriate text with a predetermined number of words to be red
within a specific amount of time.
Trade Book: A book intended for general reading that is not a textbook.
Utility: Degree of usefulness.
Variant Correspondences: various corresponding spelling patterns for a specific sound or a
variety of spelling patterns for one sound (e.g., long a spelled a, a_e, ai_, _ay).
Visual Information: Information that is accessed through visual means such as the size and
shape of a word, format, pictures, diagrams, etc.
Vocabulary: Refers to all of the words of our language. One must know words to communicate
effectively. Vocabulary is important to reading comprehension because readers cannot
understand what they are reading without knowing what most of the words mean.
Vocabulary development refers to stored information about the meanings and
pronunciation of words necessary for communication. Four types of vocabulary include
listening, speaking, reading and writing.
Vowel Digraph or Vowel Pair: Two vowels together that represent one phoneme, or sound
(e.g., ae, ai, oa).
Word Analysis/Word Attack Strategies: The process of using strategies to figure out or
decode unfamiliar words.
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ENDNOTES
1
http://lincs.ed.gov/publications/pdf/PRFbooklet.pdf
2
Nos, Nancy, 1999. Guided Reading: Strategies that Work, Bellevue, WA: Bureau of
Education & Research.
3
https://sites.google.com/site/teacherlitresources/phonics-generalizations
4
http://www.readingrockets.org/atoz/phonics_decoding/
5
www.nde.state.ne.us/READ/FRAMEWORK/glossary/general_p-t.html
6
Ibid.
7
Chall, Jeanne S. and Helel Popp. 1996. Teaching and Assessing Phonics: Why, What, When, and How. Education Publishing
Service
8
Bear, Donald, Templeton, Shane, Invernizzi, Marcia and Francine Johnston (2011). Words Their Way, 5th Ed. Pearson.
9
Bear, Donald, Templeton, Shane, Invernizzi, Marcia and Francine Johnston (2011). Words Their Way, 5th Ed. Pearson.
10
Cunningham, P (2005) Reading and Writing in Elementary Classrooms. Allyn and Bacon Publishers.
11
Anderson, R and W. Nagy (1993) The Vocabulary Conundrum. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champain
12
http://www.readingrockets.org/article/40304/
13
http://www.seattleschools.org/area/literacy/before-during-after/before-during-after.htm
14
www.bankstreet.edu/literacyguide
15
These suggestions are adapted from: R. Huntsman, 1990; L. Rhodes and C. Dudley-Marling, 1996.
16
Boosalis, Chris Nichols (2004). Beating them All! Boston, MA: Pearson.
17
McMackin, Lesley University (2001)
18
The author, Halie Kay Yopp, California State University, Futterton, grants permission for this test to be reproduced. The
author acknowledges the contribution of the late Harry Singer to the development of this test.
19
readingandwritingproject.com/public/themes/rwproject/resources/assessments/reading/concepts_about_print/concepts_about_p
rint_directions.pdf
20
Cunningham, Patricia and Richard L. Allington. Classrooms that Work: They Can ALL Read and Write. 3rd Edition. 2003.
21
http://www.bankstreet.edu/literacyguide
22
http://www.bankstreet.edu/literacyguide
23
http://www.bankstreet.edu/literacyguide
24
http://www.bankstreet.edu/literacyguide
25
Hynes, Warren at www.thepitchbaseballlife.blogspot.com
