CommissionPaper.PDF

PREPARING COUNSELORS FOR CAREER DEVELOPMENT

IN THE NEW MILLENNIUM

ACES/NCDA POSITION PAPER

December, 2000

Introduction

It has been more than 90 years since Frank Parsons created the

matching model of vocational guidance to meet the employment needs of

youthful immigrants entering an industrial society. Since Parsons’ time,

nearly a century of social change has brought forth exciting new models of

career development theory and intervention, including new directions for

career counseling and equally exciting innovations in career development

instruction.

The transition to the 21st century offers a challenge to address the

growing centrality of career in people’s lives. The Association for

Counselor Education and Supervision (ACES) and the National Career

Development Association (NCDA) are committed to finding ways to assist

counseling professionals to better meet client needs through a renewed

vision of career development in counselor education. ACES also has an

opportunity not only to reclaim its roots in vocational counseling, but to

demonstrate leadership in the advancement of the counseling profession

across cultures.

Trends

Changes in society and the counseling profession affirm the need for

attention to this topic at this time. While unemployment has been reported

as over 800 million worldwide (International Labor Organization, 1994), the

United States currently reports the lowest unemployment rate in years.

International movements toward democracy and free markets ebb and flow, yet

globalization is a reality, with increasing poverty and gaps between haves

and have-nots. Computer technology is providing mind-boggling ways of

communicating across cultures, and computer-assisted career guidance and

information systems are being developed worldwide. New work patterns are

emerging, with greater recognition being given to the significant

connection between families and work. People increasingly are seeing an

interactive connection of work with other important aspects of their lives,

including spirituality.

Progress is being made in acceptance of individual and cultural

differences and meeting the needs of diverse populations. Youth and adults

are developing new attitudes about work, leisure, family, relationships,

and retirement. Career development and counseling (and careers guidance as

it is called in many European countries) has emerged as an international

phenomenon with the opportunity for the counseling profession to grow

through cross-cultural communication, collaboration, teaching, and

research. New opportunities for people to develop their talents, make

choices, act globally, and contribute to the improvement of society are

here. But, before the new challenges can be met, change is necessary in

preparing counselors for career development. The challenge is not that

every counselor needs to be prepared to become a specialist in career

counseling but rather that all counselors need to be prepared to help

clients with career issues, understanding that those issues often are

inextricably linked with other parts of their lives.

A number of individual, societal, and professional trends have

influenced the development of this paper. In these pages, we 1) look at

these trends, 2) set a rationale and need for change in the preparation of

counselors for career development, 3) present “state of the art” questions,

4) identify triggers for change and career-related definitions which inform

this work, and 5) suggest principles and recommendations for enhancing the

career development emphasis of counselor education.

Rationale and Need for Change

It has been a number of years since the Association for Counselor

Education and Supervision has directly addressed the importance and

effectiveness of its teaching of career competencies to counselors in

training. Not since 1976, when career development and career guidance were

influenced by the then new movement in career education, has ACES made a

formal statement about the needs in this area (ACES, 1976). With new

developments of the last three decades, such as recognition of the needs of

diverse populations, concerns for low-income families increasing knowledge

of the importance of contextual influences on clients’ career development,

it is a propitious time to revisit the question of what counselor education

programs are doing to keep up with the changes.

While we know that many individual counselor educators are major

contributors to career development and vocational guidance at state,

national, and international levels, the concern of Commission members is

that ACES as an organization has not been an active leader in this

discipline in recent years. This is evident in part from the dearth of

career development articles in the major journal and the few ACES programs

on career development at ACES and American Counseling Association

conventions. In the last decade, considerable initiative in developing

training materials and resources was taken by the Career Development

Training Institute (CDTI) of the National Occupational Information

Coordinating Committee (NOICC), a federal agency which included many

counselor educators.

State of the Art

Commission discussions with leaders about the “state of the art” of

career development instruction and supervision in counselor education

programs generated concerns as to whether counselor educators are offering

the quality of instruction required to meet the learning needs of today’s

students. Have professors charged with instructional responsibility for

building students’ career counseling competencies incorporated the latest

body of rich literature in career development, and have the used innovative

instructional pedagogy? What is the “state of he art” in career

development instruction? A number of questions were raised in a series of

meetings, focus groups, and conference workshops sponsored by the

Commission in an attempt to assess the state of the art: Who teaches career

development courses? How much has the counselor education curriculum

changed to reflect the most recent theory, research, and practice in the

field?

To what extent do courses address the unique career needs of specific

populations (e.g., racial and ethnic minorities (Herring, 1999; Leong,

1995; Leung, 1995; Robinson & Howard-Hamilton, 2000; Sue & Sue, 1999;

Wehrly, Kenney & Kenney, 1999); women (Arredondo, 1992; Betz & Fitzgerald,

1987); older adults (Brewington & Nassar-McMillan, 2000; Waters & Goodman,

1990); persons with disabilities (Enright, Conyers, & Szymanski, 1996);

sexual minorities (Gelberg & Chojnacki, 1996)? How are the dramatic changes

in work and families being incorporated into training programs (Greenhaus &

Parasuraman, 1999; Richardson, 1993)?

What are counseling faculty doing to teach the now widely accepted

premise that, for many types of career issues, concerns, and problems,

effective career counseling must incorporate personal counseling? Career

literature is replete with the message that career and personal counseling

are inseparably linked (e.g., Herr, 1989, 1997; Betz & Corning, Davidson &

Gilbert, Haverkamp & Moore, Krumboltz, Lucas, Super, & Tolsma in Subich,

1993).

How is information technology, especially computer-assisted career

guidance and the internet, being taught to counselors in preparation

(Harris-Bowlsbey & Lisansky, 1998; Reardon, Lenz, Sampson, & Peterson,

2000)? What are we doing to meet the needs of children and youth who are

not being reached with career services, especially those growing up in

poverty who may be destined for low skill-low wage jobs (Herr, 1997; Hoyt,

1994)? How effectively are educators helping aspiring counselors realize

that contemporary workers need high-level workplace knowledge, skills and

applications, especially skills for continued learning throughout their

lives (Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, 1991, 1992)?

To what extent are career development instructors utilizing the many

“learning by doing” experiential strategies (such as service learning) to

make career development courses more relevant and exciting? To what extent

are programs addressing career development in a holistic way, i.e.,

including issues of meaning and purpose, spirituality, and “work within a

life” (Bloch & Richmond, 1997, 1998; Cook, 1991; Hansen, 1997)? What

strategies are counselor educators using to excite counseling students

about helping people make core decisions, choices, and transitions in their

lives (Pope & Minor, 2000), or to help them understand that career is not

just occupational information and testing and something to be put at the

bottom of course hierarchy? How do we teach counseling students integrative

thinking and skills to help clients do holistic life planning (Hansen,

1997)?

Triggers for Change

Preliminary answers to questions about the current status of career

development instruction and supervision led the Commission to conclude that

several critical findings point to a need for change in graduate

preparation programs. Commission members (most of whom are members of both

NCDA and ACES), identified several reasons that such changes in counselor

preparation are necessary.

1) Dramatic changes across cultures in the nature of work, workplaces,

employer-employee relationships, and career patterns (Rifkin, 1995;

Kummerow, 2000) have resulted in more complicated career interventions.

2) Significant changes in career theory, research, and practice designed

to enhance relevance and utility for a population increasingly diverse in

race, culture, need, experience, and opportunity call for more effective

multicultural instruction.

3) Career decisions have become more complex and central in people’s

lives and have become increasingly linked with other significant life

issues.

4) Career development unfortunately has become identified by some

counselor educators and students as the least important part of the

counseling curriculum and often has been assigned to least experienced

faculty members regardless of special interest or competency.

5) New and emerging theoretical convergences and innovations have not

been sufficiently integrated into preparation curricula.

6) Technological advances in career intervention--especially computer-

assisted guidance and the ubiquitous involvement of the internet in career

information dissemination--call for enhanced sophistication in instruction

and supervised practice.

7) New conceptions of assessment that focus on both quantitative

appraisal instruments and qualitative methods and the process and content

of choice require additional supervised practice beyond an introductory

experience.

8) Lack of recognition of clients’ needs for holistic counseling on such

issues as meaning, purpose, and spirituality in relation to life roles and

career decisions.

9) A typical overemphasis in counselor education on therapy rather than

developmental issues and failure to recognize that career issues often are

very personal.

10) Career counseling is often still being taught largely as trait and

factor matching and assessment with little attention to holistic

approaches.

It is difficult for master’s and doctoral students to acquire the

knowledge and skills needed through just one course in career development.

There is need to modify programs to provide all counseling students with

updated knowledge, skills, and attitudes that will increase their

understanding of career development as a major human development task and a

fundamental aspect of their work as counselors. Enhanced professional

competencies in career interventions will inspire new levels of enthusiasm

about career development issues and concerns.

The Need for New Definitions

Part of the problem in defining career development is that, although

there is some overlap, there are two distinct philosophies. One is the

workforce development and job search philosophy which, reinforced by

computer technology and labor market information, speaks to the economic

and placement functions of preparing people for work to help nations build

or keep the competitive economic edge in the global marketplace. The other

is the career and human development focus which emphasizes growth and

development of the whole person for work and other life roles over the life

span. Both philosophies are needed, but in most countries, the former

receives more emphasis (Hiebert & Bezanson, 2000).

Many formal documents (NCDA & NBCC, 1992; NCDA/NOICC, 2000; Engels,

1994) and several NCDA/NOICC Gallup Poll Surveys, including the most recent

in 2000, still emphasize the matching of people and jobs. They mention

connecting work and education, or work and leisure, but give only token

attention to work and family.

The traditional NCDA definitions of career, career development, and

work are well known, and the broader definitions of life span career

development are abundant in the counseling and career development

literature. In spite of myths and misinterpretations about career

development, there are areas of agreement: that it is a developmental

process, that it occurs over the life span (childhood, adolescence, early

adulthood, mid-adulthood, older adulthood), that it involves changes and

transitions. It is the content with which people may disagree. Most would

include self-learning, options learning, and decisions and transitions

learning (Watts, 1994). Others have an expanded view. For some

professionals, the focus of career development is almost entirely on

fitting into work and jobs; others define career more broadly to include

work and other life roles.

Super (1951) defined career development as “a lifelong, continuous

process of developing and implementing a self concept, testing it against

reality, with satisfaction to self and benefit to society.” He later

defined career as the roles and theaters of a person’s life, including

work, family, leisure, learning, and citizenship (Super, 1980). His broad

model has been applied internationally through the Work Importance Study

(Super & Sverko, 1995) and through the assessment C-DAC model (Osborne,

Brown, Niles, & Miner, 1997). Hansen (1997) proposes the term “integrative

life planning” as a more inclusive framework for career development in the

21st century, especially focusing on gender relationships in family and in

work, pluralism and spirituality, and the connectedness of life roles and

tasks. Herr (2000) goes further in conceptualizing career guidance and

counseling as instruments of personal flexibility and human dignity.

In the face of undeniable changes in the world of work today and the

increasing occurrence of numerous job changes over one’s work life, NCDA’s

conceptual view is that counselors and clients may be ready for a concept

of--not one job for life--but a person having one lifelong career carried

out in a variety of settings and activities (Engels, 1994). The multiple

work changes and transitions in people’s lives as well as the global

societal changes reinforce the need for some new definitions.

A major point is that, while traditional congruence models of

matching individuals and jobs probably always will be part of career

development and planning, the complexity of career decision-making in the

new millennium calls for the broadest possible definition of the term

(McDaniel, 2000), and, more important, translating the broader concept into

practice and into counselor preparation.

New Frameworks for Program Revision

What are the implications of these changes and definitions for

counselor education programs? Suggestions for curriculum revision do not

mean that everything needs to be changed. Yet the context of the 21st

century requires us to engage in self-examination and determine what part

of our career development offerings need to be kept, modified, or

transformed.

Counselor educators often consider changes when they are about to be

reviewed by accrediting agencies. Thanks partly to Commission efforts, the

revised standards of the Council for Counseling and Related Educational

Programs (CACREP) for doctoral programs give more attention to career

development than in the past.

Before revising their programs, counselor educators will need to

conduct needs assessments--obtaining inputs from recent graduates, current

students, career instructors, and counseling supervisors, as well from

career counseling clients. A starting point is for counselor educators to

review the competencies developed by the National Career Development

Association and the National Board of Certified Counselors (1992) as well

as the CACREP (2001) standards and those created by related professional

associations, such as the Association for Multicultural Counseling and

Development (AMCD, Arredondo et al., 1996) and the American School

Counselors Association (ASCA, 1997).

Principles for Curriculum Change

Counselor educators may ask, What are some principles I can use to

integrate a broader concept of career into the counseling curriculum? How

can I motivate students and help them understand the vitality of career and

career issues in people’s lives? Following are some principles to

undergird curriculum change in career development.

• Career development is a process learned throughout a person’s

lifetime. It needs to be taught from a developmental perspective, helping

counseling students see that career development is lifelong, starting with

life/work duties at home and progressing through the multiple life/work

roles one encounters and experiences over the life span.

• The preparation program should be designed to facilitate the trainees’

own career development by focusing on personal values, goals, and

abilities.

• Career issues are to be presented as central in people’s lives.

Traditional and contemporary theories of career development and models of

career decision-making can help develop a level of understanding that can

in turn help students enhance clients’ career development. The curriculum

should teach and demonstrate that good career counseling is very personal

and has profound implications for improved mental health for many

individuals—-that many mental health issues are career-related, and career

issues often affect mental health (Herr, 1989).

• The global nature of career development and career guidance must be

incorporated into the curriculum. Student awareness of international and

cross-cultural career issues needs to be increased, including the impact of

globalization on individual lives and on the workplace (Herr, 1997; Bemak &

Hanna, 1998).

• Multicultural career counseling competencies are considered integral

parts of the curriculum, including sociopolitical and historical influences

and diversity of race, ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic class, disability,

sexual orientation, age, beliefs, and geographic origin (AMCD, 1996; ASCA,

1997).

• Career development is contextual in nature. Contextual (not just

intrapersonal) influences in career counseling and the meaning of these for

clients must be a natural construct of career interventions (Fassinger,

1998).

• Professional supervision should provide ongoing feedback to students

on their career development and career counseling awareness, knowledge, and

skills so they may grow and change.

• Technology must be employed in a variety of ways for the purpose of

teaching students how to evaluate and use information systems in career

counseling; instructional focus should also attend to the potential promise

and possible ethical issues of the internet in career counseling and career

development (Harris-Bowlsbey & Lisansky, 1998).

• Career development instruction and supervision should be on the

highest pedagogical caliber, including innovative and exciting strategies

such as “Career as Story,” “Mapping,” “Integrative Thinking,” “Sophie’s

Choice: A Values Sorting Activity,” and “Career Checkup” (Pope & Minor,

2000).

• The career development curriculum should integrate/infuse career

counseling and development into all areas of the counseling program,

including individual counseling, group counseling, practica, seminars,

assessment, and multicultural counseling.

• Career development professors should teach new models for career

counseling, such as active engagement (Amundson, 1998); narrative-based

career counseling (Cochran, 1997; Jepsen, 1997; Savickas, 1997); career

development of women (Fassinger, 1998; Betz & Fitzgerald, 1987; Worell et

al., 1994); spirituality and career development, (Bloch & Richmond, 1997,

1998); transition counseling (Schlossberg, Waters, & Goodman, 1995; Feller

& Walz, 1996); holistic life planning (Hansen, 1997);

SocioDynamic/Constructivist counseling (Peavy, 1994); multicultural career

counseling (Sue & Sue, 1999; Robinson & Howard-Hamilton, 2000); Positive

Uncertainty (Gelatt, 1989); Planned Happenstance (Mitchell, Levin &

Krumboltz (1999).

• The career development curriculum should identify personal,

professional, and policy issues in career counseling and development and

train students to become professional social change advocates for clients.

• The curriculum should a) distinguish between labor market information

and career information, putting less emphasis on occupational information

and more on the process of career planning and decision-making; b) teach

models of transition, decision-making, and coping over the life span,

especially related to career.

• The counselor preparation program should a) collaborate with state

departments, other colleges, business, government, and community agencies

to identify service learning sites, practicum sites, and multicultural

sites for career counseling; b) provide in-service training for teachers

and practitioners to assist them in implementing preventive, developmental

career guidance and career development programs and recommend resources to

help them keep up to date (Gysbers & Henderson, 2000; National Career

Development Guidelines, NOICC, 1997); and c) encourage both master’s and

doctoral students to conduct qualitative and quantitative research, co-

author articles, and make conference presentations on career issues and

topics.

Career As Story

The ACES/NCDA Commission has developed a videotape on “Career as

Story” which can be used with colleagues or in training students. The

video emerged out of discussions at our first Commission meeting when each

member shared portions of his or her career story. The stories were so

moving that we decided this was one (and only one) technique we would like

to highlight to assist counselor educators and provide a tool for them to

use in career counseling. Narrative approaches have been used in

counseling for several years (White & Epston, 1990), but it is only

recently that they have come to center stage in career counseling, through

feminist psychology, multicultural traditions, and leaders in career

counseling who are exploring and developing narrative approaches.

The video consists of a Native American counselor educator telling

his story to a counseling psychologist. It was taped live at the 1999 ACES

Conference in New Orleans and followed by an interactive exercise in which

counselor educators and counseling students present shared a “chapter” of

their story, and Commission members served as group facilitators. The video

is a first in the ACES/NCDA commitment to including new career counseling

methods in counselor education, and the amount of interest and excitement

generated was encouraging.

The ACES/NCDA Commission presents this strategy to illustrate one of

the many theory-based models and strategies available to counselor

educators willing to cross the threshold of the new millennium with an open

mind to the potentials of teaching career development in some new ways.

Commission Recommendations for Counselor Educators

Following are recommendations for counselor educators to implement in

enhancing the career development skills, knowledge, and attitudes of

counselors in training.

1) Recognize that changing contexts and clients, society, and the

profession require career development to be more central in counselor

preparation.

2) Teach the best of both congruence models of vocational matching and

the broad theory of life span career development and life roles.

3) Pursue professional development for self and students to be updated

on emerging career development theory, research, and practice, as well as

add to new knowledge in the field through both qualitative and quantitative

research on all aspects of career development and career counseling. Create

opportunities for students to present on career issues at professional

conferences, author or co-author publications, and select career topics for

dissertations.

4) Teach the connection between career development and multicultural

counseling and emphasize the need to understand one’s own ethnicity and

biases as well as concepts (e.g., culture-centered counseling, racial and

ethnic identity, multicultural sensitivity, unintentional racism, white

privilege, and the like}. Teach the importance of unique career issues of

specific populations, for example, career needs of re-entry women, victims

of abuse, males and females, gays and lesbians, persons with disabilities,

the homeless, unemployed youth, and older adults.

5) Help trainees understand links among and between career and personal

counseling, career and mental health issues, and integrating work and other

life roles. (Issues such as downsizing, work/family balance, racial and

sexual discrimination, and workplace stress and adjustment often are very

personal).

6) Recognize clients’ needs for holistic counseling and counselor

assistance in exploring such issues as meaning, purpose, and spirituality

in relation to life roles and career decisions. Consider the multiple ways

in which career as story can be used to promote career development.

7) Seek professional development in the use of computers and the

internet in career guidance and counseling in order to prepare counseling

students in effective use of technology.

8) Determine that career development courses, including practicum, are

taught by counselor educators experienced in career development and

familiar with the latest theory, research, and practice.

9) Be thoroughly familiar with and teach competencies identified by

CACREP, NCDA, AMCD, ASCA, and other relevant professional organizations.

10) Examine both the career content and process of the training program

and assure that the best methods and strategies are being used. Use

principles of systems theory and organizational change to infuse and

integrate career development into all aspects of the counselor education

program (Patton & McMahon, 1999).

Conclusion

Vocational guidance/career development has grown and changed. It has

moved from emphasis only on fitting persons into the labor market to career

development over the life span; from focus only on individualism to

emphasis on collectivism, context, and diversity; from remedial to

preventive approaches and from medical models to positive human development

and psychology; from focus only on objective approaches to knowledge to

subjective, qualitative ways of knowing; from compartmentalizing human

beings to helping them become whole persons by integrating the totality of

their many life roles and experiences.

While undoubtedly some counselor education programs have changed with

the times, there is still much to be done, especially in the areas of

social justice, interpersonal relationships, diversity, ecology, and global

perspectives. These issues are at the heart of counseling and also at the

heart of career development and career decision-making, for many of the

issues relate to one another. Through strengthening the career development

component, counselor education may indeed provide leadership for advancing

counseling across cultures in a dynamic society. We hope that this paper

will serve as a stimulus for counselor educators to examine where they are

in this process and take appropriate steps to better meet the needs of

students and clients for broader, more integrated, more effective career

counseling in the new century.

Members of the Commission:

John C. Dagley, University of Georgia, Athens; Dennis W. Engels, University

of North Texas; Jane Goodman, Oakland University, Michigan; Josephine (Jo)

B. Hayslip, Career Transitions, New Hampshire; Edwin L. Herr, The

Pennsylvania State University; Roger D. Herring, University of Arkansas,

Little Rock; Xiaolu Hu, San Jose State University; Anita Jackson,

Zanesville, Ohio; Marva Larrabee, University of South Carolina; Sandra

Lopez-Baez, Walsh University, Ohio; Carole W. Minor, Northern Illinois

University, Dekalb; L. Sunny Hansen, University of MN, Minneapolis, Chair

Presidents Who Facilitated the Commission’s Work:

ACES: Michele Thomas, Memphis State University, TN

Pam Paisley, University of Georgia

Don C. Locke, North Carolina State University

NCDA: Mark Pope, St. Louis University, MO

Nancy Schlossberg, University of Maryland

Diane Kjos, Governors State University, IL

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Sunny Hansen, Chair and Principal Author December, 2000